Current Affairs – April 26, 2025

{GS2 – IR – India-Nepal} Arun-III Hydel Project

• Context (ANI): Indian Energy Minister reviewed the progress of the Arun-III Hydel Project in Nepal.

Key Features

• A run-of-the-river hydroelectric project on the Arun River in Sankhuwasabha District, eastern Nepal.

Arun River Originates in the Tibet Autonomous Region (China) as the Phung Chu or Bum Chu. It flows southward into eastern Nepal, cutting across the Himalayas, and joins the Sun Koshi and Tama Koshi rivers to form the Sapta Koshi River. The river spans approximately 490 km, with 300 km flowing through Nepal, and is part of the larger Koshi River system, a major tributary of the Ganga. Features deep gorges and steep terrain, making it highly suitable for hydropower generation. Key tributaries: Right bank: Barun River and Trisuli Khola | Left bank: Ikhuwa Khola, Sabha Khola.

• Being developed by SJVN Ltd. (Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam Ltd.), an Indian public sector undertaking.

• Executed by SJVN Arun-3 Power Development Company (SAPDC), a wholly owned subsidiary of SJVN.
• Developed under the Build-Own-Operate-Transfer (BOOT) model.

SJVN Ltd. was established in 1988, is an Indian public sector enterprise, primarily involved in the development of hydroelectric power projects. It is a joint venture between the Government of India and the Government of Himachal Pradesh.

• Concession period: 25 years post-commissioning by SAPDC; ownership to be transferred to the Government of Nepal, excluding the construction period which is 5 years.

Key Features
Capacity	900 MW
Turbines	4 × 225 MW (Francis-type)
Design Head	~798 meters
Dam Type	Concrete gravity (70 m height)
Powerhouse	Underground
Annual Generation	Approx. 4,018 GWh
Transmission	Interconnected to Indian and Nepalese grids

Significance

• For Nepal: Provide 21.9% (~197 MW) free electricity, enhance energy security, boost infrastructure, create jobs, and support its emergence as a potential energy exporter.
• For India: Supply surplus electricity via the Dhalkebar–Muzaffarpur transmission line, enhancing energy trade and deepening economic ties between India and Nepal.

The Lower Arun Hydropower Project (669 MW) is also under construction by SAPDC in Nepal.

{GS2 – MoRD – Schemes} 5 Years of SVAMITVA Scheme *

• Context (PIB): SVAMITVA scheme completes 5 years.

Need for SVAMITVA

• Accurate Land Records: Many village homes and lands in India were never properly recorded.
• Property Monetisation: Without legal documents, people couldn’t prove ownership or use their property to get bank loans or government help.
• To Minimize Property Disputes: The lack of records slowed down rural areas’ economic growth and led to frequent land disputes.

What is SVAMITVA Scheme?

• The SVAMITVA (Survey of Villages and Mapping with Improvised Technology in Village Areas) Scheme was launched by the PM on April 24, 2020, on National Panchayati Raj Day.
• SVAMITVA provides a ‘Record of Rights’ to village household owners and issues legal ownership cards to property owners by mapping land parcels using drone technology.
  • Agricultural lands are not covered under this scheme.

Objectives

• Creation of accurate land records for rural planning and reducing property-related disputes.
• To bring financial stability to the citizens in rural India by enabling them to use their property as a financial asset for taking loans and other financial benefits.
• Determination of property tax would accrue to the Gram Panchayats directly in States where it is devolved or added to the State exchequer.
• Creation of survey infrastructure and Geographic Information System (GIS) technology maps that can be leveraged by any department for their use.
• To support the Gram Panchayat Development Plan (GPDP) preparation using GIS maps.

Key Features of SVAMITVA

• Type: Central Sector scheme.
• Aim: To empower rural citizens with property cards, enabling access to credit, dispute resolution, and better planning.
• Implementation: Ministry of Panchayati Raj with support from Survey of India and National Informatics Centre Services Inc.

Key Achievements Under the Scheme

• Property Cards: Over 2.42 Cr property cards have been created for 1.61 lakh villages under the scheme.
• Drone Surveys: Completed in 3.20 lakh villages. These surveys have covered an estimated area of 68,122 square kilometres
• International Recognition:
  • Workshop on Land Governance: Showcased India’s innovative approach, including drone-based surveys, digital property records and transparent governance through the SVAMITVA Scheme.
  • India International Trade Fair 2024: The scheme demonstrated how drones and GIS mapping are helping rural communities gain clear and legal land ownership.

{GS2 – Social Sector – Health} Global Pandemic Treaty **

• Context (IE): After over three years of negotiations after the COVID-19 pandemic exposed deep flaws in global health governance, WHO Member States finalised the draft World Pandemic Treaty.
• It is only the second legally binding accord in the WHO’s 75-year history, the first being the 2003 tobacco control treaty.

Key Provisions

• Pathogen Access and Benefit Sharing: Ensures equitable sharing of pathogen samples and data for vaccine, diagnostic, and therapeutic development.
  • Participating countries must allocate 10% of their vaccine and drug production to the WHO and sell another 10% at affordable prices.
• One Health Approach: Recognises the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health, emphasising surveillance of zoonotic diseases.
• Technology and Knowledge Transfer: Promotes sharing of scientific knowledge to support vaccine and drug production, especially in developing nations (Article 11).
• Global R&D Capacity: Aims to build decentralised, geographically diverse research facilities for faster responses to emerging diseases.
• Workforce and Emergency Preparedness: Ensures the mobilization of a skilled, multidisciplinary workforce to handle health emergencies globally.
• Public Interest over Intellectual Property: Encourages using public-funded research for equitable global access to medicines.
• WHO’s Role and Respect for Sovereignty:
  • The treaty clarifies that the WHO cannot override national laws or impose health measures, respecting the sovereignty of member states (Clause 24).
  • It does not grant the WHO authority to enforce lockdowns, impose travel bans, or mandate vaccines, leaving these decisions to individual nations.
• It sets the foundation for future international agreements on global public goods in healthcare.

Limitations

• Details on how the pathogen access and benefit-sharing mechanism will operate remain unclear.
• U.S. Withdrawal: The absence of the U.S., a key player in global vaccine production, reduces the treaty’s effectiveness and global impact.
• Lack of Enforcement Mechanism: The treaty relies on voluntary compliance, without penalties for non-adherence, which weakens its impact.

Significance of the Pandemic Treaty

• Inclusive and Binding Framework: Establishes international norms for pandemic preparedness, including equitable access to vaccines and treatments.
  • The treaty provides a legally binding framework for global pandemic preparedness while incorporating equity, accountability, and solidarity principles into global health law.
• Health Equity: Tackles past vaccine inequities, ensuring future access to critical health supplies for low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).
• Global Collaboration: Despite the U.S. withdrawal, 193 countries signed the treaty, demonstrating global cooperation.
  • Institutionalising Collaboration: Promotes collaboration among countries and research institutions to ensure rapid development of vaccines and treatments during pandemics.
• Geopolitical Significance: Revives multilateralism in global health governance, strengthening WHO’s leadership role in pandemic preparedness.
• Global South Influence: The treaty acknowledges and reflects a compromise between the priorities of developed nations (scientific access) and developing nations (equity and access).

India’s Institutional Mechanism for Pandemic Response

• National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC): Monitors public health threats and coordinates responses during epidemics and pandemics.
• National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA): Coordinates multi-sectoral responses and ensures preparedness and recovery during health emergencies under the Disaster Management Act, 2005.
• Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW): Leads national efforts, including policy formulation and logistics like vaccine distribution.

Way Forward

• Global Pandemic Equity Fund: Create a fund supported by developed nations, pharmaceutical taxes, and sovereign contributions to aid equitable distribution.
• Regional Pharma Hubs: Encourage the development of pharmaceutical manufacturing facilities in the Global South to reduce dependency on developed nations.
• WHO’s Contingency Fund: Ensure sufficient funding for rapid response during health emergencies.

{GS3 – Envi – CC} Declining Snow Persistence in the Hindu Kush Himalaya

• Context (IE): ICIMOD’s report flags the third consecutive below-normal snow year in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH), with record-low snow persistence threatening water security across Asia.

Snow Persistence refers to the fraction of time snow remains on the ground during the snow season (Nov-Mar). Melting snow contributes 23% of the annual runoff to 12 major river basins in the HKH, feeding billions downstream.

Hindu Kush Himalaya

• The HKH mountains extend around 3,500 km over eight countries (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, Myanmar, and Pakistan).
  • These mountains are also called the “water towers of Asia” because they are the origins of 10 crucial river systems on the continent (Amu Darya, Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Salween, Mekong, Yangtse, Yellow River, and Tarim).
  • These river basins provide water to almost one-fourth of the world’s population and are a significant freshwater source for people in the HKH region.

Alarming Trends in Snow Persistence

• Record Decline: 2024-25 winter saw snow persistence drop to 23.6%, a two-decade low.
• Consecutive Deficits: 4 out of 5 winters between 2020 & 2025 showed below-normal snow presence.
• Worst-Hit Basins:
  • Ganga: 24.1% below normal
  • Indus: 24.5% below normal
  • Mekong: 51.9% below normal
  • Salween: 48.3% below normal
  • Tibetan Plateau: 29.1% below normal
• Population Impact: Water stress risk for 2+ billion people relying on these rivers for drinking, farming, and hydropower.

Causes of Declining Snow Persistence

• Climate Change: Regional warming in the Himalayas exceeds the global average for over 40 years.
• Land Use Changes: Urbanisation and land system transformation intensify the temperature rise.
• Weaker Western Disturbances: Reduced extra-tropical storm activity disrupts winter snowfall patterns.
• Reduced Runoff: Less persistent snowpack yields lower river flows in early summer.

About ICIMOD (International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development)

• Intergovernmental organisation founded in 1983.
• Headquarters in Kathmandu, serves 8 HKH countries.
• It conducts regional scientific research, pilots field solutions, and informs mountain development and climate adaptation policy.

{GS3 – Envi – Degradation} 4^th Global Bleaching Event

• Context (DTE): The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, in partnership with the International Coral Reef Initiative, confirmed that the world is witnessing its 4^th global bleaching event.

• The world’s worst ongoing global coral bleaching event has now affected nearly 84% of the world’s coral reefs, and mass coral bleaching has been recorded in at least 83 countries and territories.

Coral Reefs

• Coral reefs are built by tiny marine animals called coral polyps. These organisms extract calcium carbonate from seawater to create hard skeletons, forming reef structures.
• Over thousands of years, these structures have grown into vast and complex habitats that support more than 25% of all marine species, even though they cover less than 1% of the ocean floor.
• Coral reefs are vital ecosystems that support a vast diversity of marine life, provide coastal protection, and contribute to local economies and livelihoods through tourism, fishing, and coastal protection.

What is Coral Bleaching?

• Coral bleaching is when corals become white due to the loss of symbiotic algae and photosynthetic pigments. It occurs when coral polyps expel the zooxanthellae that live inside their tissue, causing the coral to turn white.
• A bleached coral is not necessarily dead, and some corals may survive. However, a bleached coral is under stress, more vulnerable to starvation and disease, and at risk of death.

Coral Bleaching Events

• The 1^st and 2^nd global coral bleaching events occurred in 1998 and 2010, respectively.
• The 3^rd global coral bleaching event, which took place between 2014 and 2017, affected 68.2% of the world’s reef areas with heat stress levels high enough to cause coral bleaching.

What Triggers Coral Bleaching?

• Climate Change: Rising ocean temperatures caused by climate change caused by anthropogenic activities are the leading cause of coral bleaching.
  • A temperature about 1 °C (or 2 °F) above average can cause bleaching.
• Other Reasons: Coral may bleach for other reasons, like extremely low tides, pollution, cyclones, ocean acidification, and extreme weather events.

Impact

• Impact on Wildlife: Thousands of marine animals, such as sea turtles, fish, jellyfish, etc., depend on coral reefs for survival. Corals shelter them, provide spawning grounds, and offer protection from predators.
  • As reef ecosystems collapse, already at-risk species may face extinction.
• Impact on Human: Coral bleaching impacts people’s livelihoods, food security, and safety. Coral reefs are natural barriers that absorb the force of waves and storm surges, keeping coastal communities safe.
  • It also affects reef tourism, bringing in billions of dollars annually.

Way Forward

• Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Curbing global warming is critical. Meeting the goals of the Paris Agreement could significantly slow coral reef degradation.
• Marine Protected Areas: Creating no-fishing zones and marine sanctuaries helps reefs recover.
• Sustainable Tourism: Eco-tourism guidelines, reef-safe sunscreens, and coral education can promote responsible travel.
• Restoration Projects: Coral farming and transplantation to revive damaged reefs.
• Public Awareness: Education and advocacy can mobilize communities to act for reef conservation.

{GS3 – IE – Industry} India’s Steel Sector

• Context (PIB): PM addressed India Steel Programme 2025, emphasizing steel’s foundational role in India’s development and outlining a future-ready roadmap for the sector.

Importance of Steel in Development

• Steel as Economic Backbone: Forms the structural base of modern economies; crucial for skyscrapers, shipping, highways, smart cities and industrial corridors.
• Steel & India’s Growth Vision: Central to the $5 trillion economy target; symbol of infrastructure progress and national transformation.
  • National Steel Policy Goals: Production target of 300 million tonnes by 2030.
  • Long-Term Capacity Goal: Aim to reach 500 million tonnes by 2047.
  • Export-Oriented Strategy: Target to export 25 mn tonnes with zero import vision for govt projects.
  • Future-Ready Sector: Emphasis on new processes, advanced grades, digital transformation and scaling up operations.
• Benchmark of Efficiency: Rising per capita consumption (currently 98 kg, target 160 kg by 2030) reflects infrastructure growth and governance efficiency.

Infrastructure Push

• PM Gati Shakti Plan: Multimodal mapping of mines and steel units to enhance connectivity.
• National Infrastructure Pipeline: $1.3 trillion pipeline advancing sectors like roads, ports, airports, etc.
• Eastern India Focus: Upgradation of steel-rich regions through integrated infrastructure development.
• PM Awas Yojana and Jal Jeevan Mission: Large-scale housing and water projects drive steel demand in rural areas.

Policies Promoting Domestic Steel Use

• ‘Made in India’ Steel Mandate: Only domestic steel allowed in government construction projects.
• National Manufacturing Mission: Introduced in Union Budget to strengthen Make in India, opening new steel demand channels.
• PLI Scheme for Steel: Incentivises high-grade steel production with substantial budgetary allocation.
• Public Sector: Govt-driven schemes are primary steel consumers, ensuring steady demand.
  • Steel in National Pride Projects: Used in India’s first indigenous aircraft carrier and Chandrayaan mission, showcasing self-reliance.
  • Pipeline & Rail Demand Surge: Rapid railways and pipeline infrastructure expansion spur the need for specialised steel.
• Shipbuilding Recognised as Infrastructure: Supports domestic manufacturing of modern vessels, boosting steel demand.

{GS3 – IE – Industry} Sunrise Sector Strategy for India’s Manufacturing Drive **

• Context (TH | TP | ET): Finance Minister announced the goal to raise the manufacturing sector’s GDP share from 12% to 23% by 2047, focusing on sunrise industries.

Vision 2047: Viksit Bharat Through Manufacturing

• Target: Manufacturing to contribute 23% to GDP by 2047.
• Strategy: Leverage sunrise sectors, production incentives, skilling, and global supply chain integration to achieve a self-reliant, inclusive, export-led, and innovation-powered industrial economy.

About Sunrise Industries

• These are innovation-driven, high-growth emerging sectors aligned to future needs and market trends, marked by rapid expansion, strong investment flow and a vibrant start-up ecosystem.
• Examples: Include green hydrogen, renewable energy, EV batteries, semiconductors, medical devices, blockchain, technical textiles, cloud computing, and clean energy.
• Global Significance: Align with international goals on sustainability, digitalization, and low-carbon devpt.
• Sunrise industries may shift to maturity & eventually become sunset industries if innovation stagnates/demand declines. Thus, to sustain momentum, dynamic policy frameworks are required.

Sunrise Industries as Growth Catalysts

• Economic Diversification: Drive structural shifts from traditional to modern sectors, reducing dependency on declining industries.
• Employment Engine: Create new job opportunities through innovation-led entrepreneurship and expanding markets, to absorb India’s large, youthful labour force in formal, quality jobs.
• Tech. Transfer & Innovation: Promote R&D, attract global investments, foster local tech capabilities.
• Economic Multiplier Effect: Spur growth in related fields like logistics, education, finance & digital infra.
• Balanced Economic Growth: Corrects the overdependence on services (64% of GDP) by strengthening the secondary sector.
• Global Competitiveness: Strengthen export potential and positioning in futuristic global value chains.
• Social Impact: Brings dignity of work, stable income, and inclusive regional development.

Challenges

• Infrastructure Deficits: Need modern logistics, energy, and digital access across smaller cities.
• Regulatory Uncertainty: Unstable, non-predictable policy environment crucial for investor trust.
• R&D & Technology Gaps: High innovation requirement in fast-evolving sectors.

Government Support for Sunrise Industries

• Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme: Central sector scheme by Commerce Ministry covering 14 sectors like electronics, pharma, telecom, and auto components to promote manufacturing and exports.
• Infrastructure Push: Includes PM Gati Shakti for integrated transport, dedicated freight corridors, industrial clusters, and upgraded utilities to support industrial ecosystems.
• Skill Development Programs: Encompasses Skill India Mission and SAMARTH (Textiles Ministry), focusing on Industry 4.0 skills like AI, robotics, and smart manufacturing to ready the workforce.
• National Missions: Make in India and Atmanirbhar Bharat initiatives promote self-reliant industrial growth and resilience in critical sectors.
• Clean Tech Focus: National Green Hydrogen Mission supports clean energy transition, aligning with global sustainability goals.
• Electronics Policy Support: National Policy on Electronics aims to scale up domestic production, innovation, and exports in electronics manufacturing.
• Formalization of Workforce: Targeted shift from informal gig work to structured, secure formal employment within high-growth industrial sectors.

{GS3 – IE – Reports} World Economic Outlook (WEO)

• Context (IE): In its latest economic outlook, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has slashed growth projections for most countries, including India.

Key Observations

• Forecast on Global Growth: The IMF has cut its forecast for global growth from its January forecast by 0.5 percentage points to 2.8 per cent for 2025 and by 0.3 percentage points to 3 per cent for 2026.
• Factors Affecting Growth: The swift escalation of trade tensions and extremely high levels of policy uncertainty are the key factors affecting global economic activity.

• Recommendation: Countries should work constructively to promote a stable and predictable trade environment and to facilitate international cooperation, while addressing policy gaps and structural imbalances at home.

About India

• India’s growth forecast has been cut by 0.3% points to 6.2% from 6.5% for the financial year 2025-26 and by 0.2% to 6.3% from 6.1% for the next financial year 2026-27.
• India’s growth outlook is relatively more stable at 6.2 % in 2025, supported by private consumption, particularly in rural areas.

About World Economic Outlook (WEO) Survey of prospects and policies by the IMF staff, usually published twice a year. It presents analyses and projections of the world economy in the near and medium term.

{GS3 – S&T – Bio} Coenzymes in Human Food

• Context (TH): Scientists from China successfully engineered rice varieties capable of producing Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10).
• Genetic engineering and CRISPR-Cas9 technology have produced Coq10-enriched rice and cereals.
  • Presenting biofortified crops as functional foods that address nutritional deficiencies and promote better health outcomes.

Coenzymes

• Coenzymes are organic, non-protein molecules that assist enzymes in catalyzing biochemical reactions.
• Act as carrier molecules for electrons, atoms, or functional groups.
• Help in energy production, fat metabolism, DNA synthesis, and detoxification.
• Mostly derived from vitamins and nutrients in food.

Enzymes Biological catalysts made of proteins that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms. They work by lowering the activation energy required for reactions, ensuring processes like digestion, energy production, and DNA replication occur efficiently. Example: Amylase, Lipase, Pepsin, DNA polymerase, etc.

Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10)

• Coenzyme Q (CoQ), ubiquinone, is a lipid-soluble antioxidant supporting cellular metabolism.
• CoQ10 is a naturally occurring molecule found in the mitochondria, the energy powerhouse of cells.
• Dietary Sources of CoQ10
  • Meats, particularly organ meats like liver, heart, and kidneys.
  • Fatty Fish such as salmon, sardines, and mackerel.
  • Whole Grains like wheat germ, oats, and corn.
  • Vegetables such as spinach, broccoli, and cauliflower.

• Similar to CoQ10, Coenzyme Q9 (CoQ9) is primarily found in plants, especially cereal grains such as wheat, rice, oats, corn, and rye. It is also found in flowering plants like avocado, pepper, and cinnamon.

Role in Human Health

• Energy Production: Integral to the mitochondrial electron transport chain, where it facilitates the production of ATP, the body’s primary energy molecule.
• Antioxidant Protection: Potent antioxidant, helping to neutralise harmful free radicals and protecting cells from oxidative stress, which is crucial for preventing age-related diseases such as heart disease and neurodegenerative disorders.
• Organ-Specific Functions: Organs with high energy demands, such as the heart, liver, and muscles, have elevated levels of CoQ10, necessary to meet the metabolic needs of these tissues.
• Supplementation: Often recommended for people with heart conditions, neurological diseases, diabetes fatigue, or age-related conditions.
  • It has been shown to improve mitochondrial function, supporting overall energy levels.

Biofortified crops are agricultural crops that have been genetically engineered or bred to have higher levels of essential nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, compared to conventional crops. Example: Golden Rice (increased Vitamin A content), Iron-rich Beans (higher iron levels), Zinc-enriched Wheat and Rice, and CoQ10-enriched Rice

{GS3 – S&T – Defence – Aircraft} ALH Dhruv

• Context (TH): Dhruv helicopters resumed operations in Anantnag.

Key Features

• The Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH) Dhruv is an indigenously developed utility aircraft by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
• Specifically designed for multi-role and multi-mission operations.
• Development began in 1984, with initial assistance from Germany’s Messerschmitt-Bolkow-Blohm (MBB).
• Made its first flight in 1992, was certified, and entered service in 2002.

Major variants of ALH Dhruv Mk-I: Initial version for basic military utility, including troop transport and search and rescue missions. Mk-II: Enhanced with advanced avionics and greater payload capacity, used for medical evacuation, transport, and reconnaissance. Mk-III: Designed for high-altitude operations, maritime duties, and disaster relief, with powerful engines for challenging environments. Mk-IV: Advanced version with upgraded avionics and combat capabilities, used for military and civil applications, including defence and surveillance.

• Structure includes:
  • Twin-engine configuration: Enhances reliability and safety during operations.
  • Glass cockpit: Equipped with advanced avionics, providing the crew with improved operational control and situational awareness.
  • Crashworthy airframe and landing gear: To withstand high-impact landings & survivability.
  • Composite, interchangeable main rotor blades: Better durability and operational efficiency.
  • Chaff and flare dispenser: Provides self-protection against heat-seeking missiles.
  • Helmet Pointing System (HPS): Enhances targeting and aiming capabilities for weaponry.
  • Integrated self-protection suite: Includes advanced sensors and countermeasures to protect the helicopter from threats.
  • On-board inert gas generation system: Improves safety by reducing fire risks in fuel tanks.
  • Versatility in terrain: Capable of operating in high-altitude regions and rugged terrain, including the Himalayas and Siachen Glacier.

The ALH Dhruv is extensively used by the Indian Armed Forces, including the Indian Army, Navy, Air Force, and Coast Guard, performing a variety of missions such as search and rescue (SAR), transportation, reconnaissance, disaster relief, and anti-submarine warfare. The helicopter has also been exported to Nepal, Mauritius, and the Maldives, contributing to regional defense cooperation.

{Species – Fish – Discovery} Labeo uru and Labeo chekida

• Context (TH): Researchers discovered two new species of freshwater fish, i.e. Labeo uru and Labeo chekida, from the Western Ghats.

  

  Source: @icarindia

• The discovery claims to have resolved the 150-year-old identity when the two new species were confused as Labeo nigrescens (Rohu). Both species are endemic to their respective river systems.
• Labeo uru, named after the traditional wooden dhow for its sail-like elongated fins, was found in the Chandragiri River.
• Labeo chekida, a small, dark-bodied fish known locally as ‘kaka chekida’, inhabits the Chalakudy River.

Chandragiri River

• Also known as the Payaswini River in Karnataka and the Perumpuzha River in Kerala.
• It was named after the Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya.
• Origin: Talakaveri Wildlife Sanctuary in the Western Ghats of Kodagu district, Karnataka.
• The Chandragiri River empties into the Arabian Sea.

Chalakudy River

• Chalakudy River or Chalakudy Puzha is the 5^th longest river in Kerala.
• Origin: Anamalai region of Tamil Nadu.
• It drains into the Periyar River.