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Geography General Studies
Geomorphology
- Geography Notes PDF for UPSC IAS Civil Services Exam
- Fluvial Depositional Landforms | Types of Deltas
- Glacial Landforms: Erosional and Depositional
- Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion | Coastlines
- Arid Landforms: Wind Eroded & Water Eroded
- Karst Landforms & Cycle of Erosion | Stalactite & Stalagmite
- Lake | Classification of Lakes (types of lakes)
- Important Lakes on Earth & Facts About Lakes
- Plateau Formation & Types of Plateaus | Major Plateaus of The World
- Direct & Indirect Sources for Understanding the Earth’s Interior
- Seismic waves, Shadow Zone of P-waves and S-waves
- Earth’s Layers: Crust, Mantle & Core, Seismic Discontinuities
- Earth’s Magnetic Field, Dynamo theory, Magnetosphere
- Geomagnetic Reversal, Magnetic Declination & Inclination (Dip)
- Endogenic Geomorphic Movements: Epeirogenic & Orogenic
- Exogenic Geomorphic Movements: Denudation & Weathering
- Continental Drift Theory: Evidences and Drawbacks, Tectonics
- Paleomagnetism, See Floor Spreading, Convectional Currents
- Plate Tectonics vs. Continental Drift and See Floor Spreading
- Tectonic Plates & their interactions, Indian Plate Movement
- Ocean-Ocean Convergence and Volcanic Island Arc Formation
- Continent-Ocean Convergence, Formation of Fold Mountains
- Continent-Continent Convergence, Formation of the Himalayas
- Divergent Boundary, The Great Rift Valley (African Rift Valley)
- Classification of Mountains on the basis of Location, Origin
- Fold & Fault in Geology, Fold Mountains and Block Mountains
- Major Mountain Ranges of the World, Highest Mountain Peaks
- Volcanism: Andesitic & Basaltic Lava, Distribution of Volcanoes
- Volcanic Landforms: Extrusive & Intrusive Volcanic Landforms
- Volcanism: Explosive, Strombolian, Vulcanian, Plinian, Pelean
- Hotspot Volcanism, Mantle plumes, Flood Basalt, Supervolcanoe
- Rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary & Metamorphic Rocks, Rock cycle
- Earthquakes: Causes & Distribution, Shallow & Deep Quakes
- Richter Magnitude Scale & Earthquakes of Varying Strengths
- Tsunami: Mechanism & Properties, 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami
- Soil Erosion: Wind and Water Erosion, Rill and Gully erosion
- Fluvial Erosional Landforms: Meander, Oxbow Lake, Peneplain
- Drainage Patterns: Concordant, Discordant, Dendritic, Trellis
Climatology
- Latitudes & Longitudes | Standard Time
- Motions of the earth: Rotation and Revolution
- Atmosphere: Role, Structure & Composition
- Temperature Distribution on Earth & Heat Budget
- Adiabatic Lapse Rate | Latent Heat of Condensation
- Atmospheric Pressure Belts and Wind Systems
- Factors Affecting Wind movement | Coriolis Force
- Types of Winds: Permanent, Secondary & Local Winds
- Temperature Inversion: Types & Effects on Weather
- Geostrophic Wind, Jet Streams & Rossby Waves
- Major Jet Steams: Subtropical Jet Stream & Polar Jet Stream
- Air Mass | Air masses based on Source Regions
- Fronts | Types of Fronts: Stationary Front, Warm Front, Cold Front & Occluded Front
- Humidity: Relative Humidity & Dew point
- Condensation | Forms of Condensation: Dew, Fog, Frost, Mist | Types of Clouds
- Smog: Photochemical smog & Sulfurous smog
- Precipitation: Types of Precipitation | Types of Rainfall
- Thunderstorm | Thunder & Lightning | Tornado
- Tropical Cyclones: Favorable Conditions for Formation, Stages of Formation & Structure
- Storm Surge | Naming of Cyclones | Cyclones in Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal
- Temperate Cyclones (Mid Latitude Cyclone or Extra tropical cyclones or Frontal Cyclones)
- Comparison of Tropical Cyclones & Temperate Cyclones
- El Nino | ENSO | La Nina | El Nino Modoki | Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)
- Polar Vortex & Ozone Hole (Ozone Depletion)
- Rainforest Climate (Tropical Evergreen Climate)
- Monsoon Climate | Monsoon Forests
- Savanna Climate (Tropical Wet Dry Climate)
- Desert Climate | Hot Deserts & Mid-Latitude Deserts
- Steppe Climate (Temperate Grassland Climate)
- Mediterranean Climate (Western Margin Climate)
- China Type Climate, Gulf Type Climate & Natal Type Climate
- British Type Climate (European Maritime Climate)
- Taiga Climate | Coniferous Forests & Lumbering
- Laurentian Climate | Fishing off Newfoundland & Japan
- Tundra Climate (Polar Climate or Arctic Climate)
Oceanography
- Major and Minor Ocean Relief Features
- Marginal seas of the world | Bay, Gulf, Strait, Isthmus
- Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean & Indian Ocean
- Ocean currents: Forces Responsible For Ocean Currents | Desert Formation and Ocean Currents
- Pacific Ocean Currents | Phytoplankton and Fishing
- Atlantic Ocean Currents | Sargasso Sea
- Indian Ocean Currents | Effect of Monsoons on North Indian Ocean Currents
- Vertical & Horizontal Temperature Distribution of Oceans
- Ocean Salinity: Vertical & Horizontal Distribution of Ocean Salinity
- Tides: Spring Tide & Neap Tide| Tidal Bulge | Tidal Bore
- Coral Reef: Fringing Reef, Barrier Reef & Atoll
- Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth & Coral Reef Bleaching
Indian Geography
- India: Geographical Extent & Frontiers
- Indian Rock System: Archaean, Purana, Dravidian & Aryan Rock System
- Himalayan Ranges: Shiwaliks, Middle Himalayas, Greater Himalayas, Trans-Himalayas & Purvanchal
- Regional Divisions of Indian Himalayas
- Himalayas: Glaciers, Valleys & Snowline
- Major Mountain Passes in India & Himalayas
- Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain | Bhabar, Terai, Bhangar, Khadar
- Divisions of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plains
- Peninsular Plateau (Deccan Plateau) | Plateaus in the Peninsular Region
- Hills of Peninsular India: Aravalis, Vindhyas, Satpuras, Western & Eastern Ghats
- Coastline of India | Coastal Plains of India
- Indian Islands: Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep Islands & New Moore Island
- Drainage patterns: Discordant drainage patterns & Concordant Drainage Patterns
- Classification of Drainage Systems of India
- Indus River System: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas & Satluj
- Ganga-Brahmaputra River System: Major Tributaries of The Ganga & Brahmaputra
- Peninsular River System vs. Himalayan River System
- East Flowing Peninsular Rivers: Godavari, Krishna & Mahanadi
- East Flowing Peninsular Rivers: Cauvery, Pennar, Subarnarekha, Ponnaiyar & Vaigai
- West Flowing Peninsular Rivers: Narmada, Tapti, Sabarmati, Mahi, Luni & Ghaggar
- Mechanism of Indian Monsoons
- Indian Monsoon Mechanism: Jet Stream Theory
- Indian Monsoons: Role of Tropical Easterly Jet, Tibet, Somali Jet & Indian Ocean Dipole
- Indian Monsoons: South West Monsoons & North East Monsoons
- Western Disturbances | Cloudburst
- Indian Climate | Factors Affecting Indian Climate
- Indian Climate: Summer & Winter Seasons
- Indian Climate: South West Monsoon Season
- Indian Climate: Retreating Monsoon Season (North East Monsoons)
- Stamp’s & Koeppen’s Classification of Climatic Regions of India
- Natural Vegetation of India: Moist Tropical, Dry Tropical, Montane Sub-tropical, Montane Temperate & Alpine Forests
- Soil Types: Sandy, Clayey & Loamy | Soil Profile (Soil Horizon)
- Factors that influence soil formation in Indian Conditions
- Major Soil Types of India: Alluvial Soils & Black Soils
- Major Soil Types of India: Red Soils, Lateritic Soils & Alkaline Soils
Economic Geography
- Iron Ore Distribution across the World
- Iron Ore Distribution in India | Types of Iron Ore
- Coal | Types of Coal: Peat, Lignite, Bituminous Coal & Anthracite Coal
- Distribution of Coal in India: Gondwana Coalfields & Tertiary Coalfields
- Distribution of Coal across the World
- Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil in India
- World distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil
- Natural Gas Distribution: India & World
- Unconventional Gas Resources: Shale Gas & Coalbed Methane
- Manganese Ore Distribution across India & World
- Gold & Silver Distribution across India & World
- Copper, Nickel & Chromite Distribution across India & World
- Bauxite, Lead & Zinc, Tungsten & Pyrites Distribution across India and World
- Nuclear Fission, Components of Nuclear Reactor, Types of Nuclear Reactors
- Uranium & Thorium Distribution across India & World
- India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme
- Diamond & Graphite Distribution across India & World
- Mica, Limestone & other Non-Metallic Minerals in India
Geography Current Affairs and Contemporary Issues
- Heatwave and Urban Heat Island – Causes and Effects
- Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)
Environment General Studies
- Environment Notes for UPSC IAS GS1 & GS3
- Environment Questions Asked in Prelims & Mains (2011-15)
- Solved Environment Prelims Questions (2011-15)
- Environment and Ecosystem, Components of an Ecosystem
- Ecology: Levels, Principles and Organizations
- Ecotone: Edge Effect, Edge Species and Ecological Niche
- Functions of Ecosystem: Ecological succession, Homeostasis
- Energy Flow through an Ecosystem: Food Chain, Food Web
- Energy Flow through an Ecosystem: Ecological Pyramids
- Carbon Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle, Phosphorus and Sulphur Cycle
- Biomes or Terrestrial Ecosystems and Aquatic Ecosystems
- Wetland Ecosystem, Measures to Protect Wetlands, NWCP
- Ramsar Sites in India, Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
- Estuarine Ecosystem, Mangroves, Mangroves in India
- Air Pollution: Air Pollutants, Classification of Air Pollutants
- Acid Rain & Ocean Acidification (Effects of Air Pollution)
- Controlling Air Pollution: Bharat Stage VI, National Air Quality Index
- Water Pollution: Causes & Effects, Eutrophication, Algal Blooms
- Water Pollution Control Measures: Bio-Toilets, Bioremediation
- Radioactive Pollution: Ionizing & Non-Ionizing Radiation
- Soil Pollution, Solid Waste, Hazardous Waste, Electronic Waste
- Land Degradation, Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation
- Biodiversity of India, Biodiversity Hotspots of India
- Loss of Biodiversity, Biodiversity Conservation: In Situ & Ex Situ
- Greenhouse Effect, Global Warming, Carbon Sequestration
- Earth Summit 1992, UN Environment, Rio+20, CBD, UNFCCC
- UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol (UNFCCC Summit 1997), Carbon Trading
- Paris Agreement, Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC)
- UN-REDD, REDD+, Short-Lived Climate Pollutants, GCCA+
- India’s National Action Plan On Climate Change (NAPCC)
- Laws for Prevention & Control of Pollution, Protection of Environment
- Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Process & Procedures
- Wild Life Protection Act, Forest Conservation Act, Forest Rights Act
- Project Tiger, Elephant, Snow Leopard, Hangul, Rhino Vision 2020
- Green Revolution, Bringing Green Revolution in Eastern India (BGREI)
- Sustainable Agriculture: Mixed cropping, Crop rotation, Mixed Farming
- Organic Farming, Bio-Fertilizers and Their Use in Agriculture
- New Agricultural Practices: Hydroponics, Aquaponics, Aeroponics
- Genetically Modified Crops (GM Crops): Benefits & Controversies
- IUCN Red List India | Red Data List | Red Book Part-1
- IUCN Red List India | Red Data List | Red Book Part-2
- IUCN Red List India | Red Data List | Red Book Part-3
- Indian Vulture Crisis Due to Diclofenac, Vulture Safety Zones
- CITES, TRAFFIC, MIKE, Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB)
- Tiger Census Report 2018, MSTrIPES, India’s Tiger Landscapes
Environment Related Contemporary Issues and Current Affairs
General Science
Evolution of the Earth
- Geological Time Scale: Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic & Phanerozoic
- Phanerozoic Eon: Paleozoic Era, Mesozoic Era & Cenozoic Era
Astronomy
- The Universe, Big Bang Theory, Dark Energy, Gravitational waves
- Star Formation (Stellar Evolution or Life Cycle Of A Star)
- Solar System Formation: Nuclear Disc Model (neo-Laplacian model)
- Sun’s Internal Structure and Atmosphere, Solar Wind
- Planets of the Solar System & Other Solar System Objects
Biology
- Cell Organelles | Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell
- Carbohydrates | Monosaccharides | Polysaccharides
- Proteins | Amino Acids | Enzymes
- Vitamins and Minerals – Deficiency Diseases
- Fats | Healthy Fats and Unhealthy Fats
- Animal Tissues – Epithelium, Connective Tissues
- Human Digestive System | Digestive Glands
- Respiratory System – NCERT General Science
- Endocrine Glands and Hormones
- Human Neural System | Human Brain
- Muscular and Skeletal System
- Nucleic acids – DNA and RNA | Recombinant DNA
- Mitosis | Cell Cycle | Cell Division
- Meiosis | Mitosis – Meiosis Comparison
- Inheritance – Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
- Chromosomal Theory | Human Genome Project
- Sex Determination | Genetic Disorders
- Diseases Caused by Microorganisms
- Microbes In Human Welfare | Useful Microbes
- Immunity | Human Immune System
- AIDS | Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
- Cancer | Causes of Cancer – NCERT
- Drugs and Alcohol Abuse – NCERT
- Diseases | Acute, Chronic, Communicable Diseases
- Blood | Blood Groups | Formed Elements
- Circulatory System | Double Circulation
- Excretory System | Kidney | Urine Formation
- Origin and Evolution of Life on Earth
- Biological Classification – General Science
- Five Kingdom Classification of Plants and Animals
- Plant Parts and Their Functions
- Plant Kingdom – Thallophytes (Algae) – Bryophytes – Pteridophytes
- Plants with Seeds – Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
- Plant Tissue – Meristematic – Simple, Complex Permanent Tissue
- Plant Nutrition – Photosynthesis | Nitrogen Cycle, Fixation
- Sexual and Asexual Reproduction in Plants
- Classification of Animal Kingdom (Animalia)
- Classification of Vertebrata (Phylum Chordata)
- Human Reproductive System
- Biotechnology | Genetic Engineering – Processess and Applications
- Insectivorous Plants of India: Drosera, Pitcher Plant, Utricularia