Current Affairs – April 25, 2025

{GS1 – A&C – Religion – Buddhism} Buddhas of Bamiyan

• Context (TH): The Taliban, once known for destroying Afghanistan’s heritage like the Bamiyan Buddhas in 2001, now claim to be preserving the country’s heritage.
  • In Laghman province, niches and Brahmi inscriptions have been discovered, highlighting Afghanistan’s 5,000-year-old historical depth.

Credit: RHP

About the Buddhas of Bamiyan

• Located in the Bamiyan Valley of central Afghanistan, northwest of Kabul.
• It lies along the ancient Silk Route, which historically facilitated trade and cultural exchange between India, China, Persia, and Central Asia. The valley served as a major Buddhist monastic centre from the 2^nd century CE to the Islamic conquest in the 9^th century CE.
• Construction period: Believed to have been built between the 4^th and 6^th centuries CE during the height of Mahayana Buddhism.
  • Patronised by rulers of the Kushan and later the Hephthalite dynasty.

The Hephthalites, also known as the White Huns, were a Central Asian nomadic group of probable Iranian or Turkic origin, who invaded northwest India during the 5th and 6th centuries CE.

• Once home to numerous monasteries, monks, and pilgrims, it played a vital role in the spread of Buddhism from India to Central Asia and China.
• Symbol of syncretic Indo-Greek-Gandhara art, with evident influence from Hellenistic styles introduced after Alexander’s eastern campaigns.
• Structure: The two monumental statues of the Bamiyan Buddhas were:
  • Salsal (“Light Shines Through the Universe”) – approx. 55 meters tall.
  • Shahmama (“Queen Mother”) – approx. 38 meters tall.
  • Both statues were carved into the cliff face, with features modelled in clay over a wooden armature and painted.
• Surrounded by hundreds of caves, some used as monastic residences, chapels, and meditation cells with vibrant frescoes and murals.

Connection with India

• Part of the cultural region influenced by Indian-origin Buddhism.
• Frequent mention of Buddhist relics, scripts (Brahmi), and art motifs originating in the Gupta period links the site culturally and linguistically with ancient Indian civilisation.
• Testimony to India’s ancient cultural outreach and civilisational ties with Afghanistan.

UNESCO declared the Bamiyan Valley a World Heritage Site in Danger (2003) and initiated a series of restoration, documentation, and digital reconstruction efforts. Institutions like the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and ALIPH have contributed to safeguarding what remains. 3D holographic projections and digital recreation of the statues have been tested on-site since 2015.

Also refer > Bojjannakonda and Lingalakonda Buddhist Rock-Cut Caves, Indian Art & Culture.

{GS2 – IR – India-Pakistan} India Suspends Indus Waters Treaty **

• Context (IE): India has suspended the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) for the 1^st time following the terrorist attack on tourists in Pahalgam.

Implications of Decision It will give India more options on how to use the waters of the Indus River system. For instance, India can immediately stop sharing water flow data with Pakistan. There will be no design or operational restrictions on India for the use of the water of the Indus and its tributaries. Also, India can now create storage on the Western Rivers, Indus, Jhelum and Chenab. The Treaty has no end date. Since there is no provision in the IWT about its duration or suspension, there is no avenue that Pakistan can approach for the ‘revival’ of the treaty.

What is Indus Waters Treaty (IWT)?

• The IWT, signed between India and Pakistan on September 19, 1960, brokered by the World Bank.
  • It was signed in Karachi by then Indian PM Jawaharlal Nehru and Pakistani President Ayub Khan.
• The treaty fixed and delimited the rights and obligations of both countries concerning the use of the waters of the Indus River system.
• It’s considered one of the most successful water-sharing treaties in the world. Despite multiple wars and decades of tension, the IWT has largely held firm.

Key Provisions

Water Sharing

• Eastern Rivers Water to India: All the water of the “Eastern Rivers” (Sutlej, Beas and Ravi) of the Indus system shall be available for the “unrestricted use” of India.
• Western Rivers Water to Pakistan: Pakistan shall receive water from the “Western Rivers”(Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab).
• India is permitted limited use of these rivers for agricultural purposes and for constructing ‘run-of-the-river’ hydroelectric projects, which do not involve significant water storage.
• No Exit Clause: The Indus Waters Treaty lacks an exit clause, meaning neither India nor Pakistan can legally abrogate it unilaterally. Any modification to the treaty requires the consent of both parties.

Implementation

• Permanent Indus Commission: A bilateral body comprising representatives from both India and Pakistan, established to ensure the implementation and management of the provisions outlined in the IWT.
• Role: To facilitate cooperation and address issues concerning the use and allocation of the Indus River system between the two countries.
• Annual Meeting: The commission is required to meet at least once a year to discuss potential disputes and cooperative arrangements for the development of the Indus River system.

Dispute Resolution

• 1^st Step: The PIC shall examine any questions between the Parties.
• 2^nd Step: If an agreement cannot be reached at the PIC level, the dispute can be referred to a Neutral Expert (facilitated by the World Bank).
• 3^rd Step: If the governments fail to reach an agreement, a Court of Arbitration shall be established to resolve the dispute.

Read More> India’s Demand for IWT Modification and Indus River System.

{GS2 – IR – International Organisations} SAARC Visa Exemption Scheme *

• Context (TH): In response to the Pahalgam terror attack, the Indian government has cancelled SAARC Visa Exemption Scheme (SVES) for Pakistani nationals.

Key Features of SVES

• Launch: It was launched in 1992 to promote regional cooperation and ease of movement among the member countries of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).
• Objective: To enhance people-to-people contact and facilitate smoother travel for key groups to promote cooperation and regional integration among SAARC nations.
• Eligible Categories (24): 24 categories of entitled persons, which include Dignitaries, Judges of higher courts, Parliamentarians, Senior Officials, Businessmen, Journalists, Sportspersons etc.
• Visa Stickers: Issued by the respective Member states to the entitled categories of that particular country. The validity of the Visa Sticker is generally for one year.
• The implementation is reviewed regularly by the Immigration Authorities of SAAR Member states.

What is SAARC?

• SAARC is an economic and political regional organisation of countries in South Asia.
• Established: With the signing of the SAARC Charter in Dhaka on 8 December 1985.
• Member States (8): Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
• Observer Members: EU, Australia, China, Iran, Japan, Republic of Korea, Mauritius, Myanmar & USA.
• Secretariat: Kathmandu
• Objectives:
  • To promote the welfare of the peoples of South Asia and to improve their quality of life,
  • To accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region,
  • To promote and strengthen collective self-reliance among the countries of South Asia,
  • To contribute to mutual trust, understanding and appreciation of one another’s problems,
  • To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in the economic, social, cultural, technical and scientific fields,
  • To strengthen cooperation with other developing countries,
  • To strengthen cooperation in international forums on matters of common interests,
  • To cooperate with international and regional organizations with similar aims and purposes.
• SAARC Summits: Summits are usually held biennially hosted by a Member State in alphabetical order. The Member State hosting the Summit assumes the Chair of the Association.
  • The last summit was organised in Kathmandu in 2014.

• Decisions: At all levels decisions are to be taken on the basis of unanimity.
  • Bilateral and contentious issues are excluded from the deliberations of the Association.
• South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA): Regional trade agreement among SAARC countries to promote and enhance mutual trade and economic cooperation by reducing trade barriers like tariffs and quotas.

SAARC Specialized Bodies

SAARC Development Fund (SDF)

• Established in 2010, it carries out and manages various projects and programs across three key areas: Social, Economic, and Infrastructure.
• Governed by a Board consisting of representatives from the Ministry of Finance of the Member States.
• Secretariat: Thimphu (Bhutan).

South Asian Regional Standards Organization (SARSO)

• Established in 2011 to achieve and enhance coordination and cooperation among SAARC member countries in the fields of standardization and conformity assessment.
• It is aimed at developing harmonized standards for the region to facilitate intra-regional trade and to have access in the global market.
• Secretariat: Dhaka (Bangladesh).

SAARC Arbitration Council (SARCO)

• It was established in 2007 to resolve cost-effective settlement of disputes via arbitration within the region.
• Secretariat: Islamabad (Pakistan).

South Asian University (SAU)

• Established in 2010, SAU offers postgraduate and doctoral education to students from SAARC countries to foster regional consciousness.
• Degrees and Certificates awarded by the SAU at par with the respective Degrees and Certificates awarded by the National Universities / Institutions.
• Location: New Delhi (India).

{GS2 – Polity – IC – Judiciary} Is India Leading Towards Judicial Despotism? **

• Context (TH): Recent SC judgments have sparked debates over whether the judiciary is exceeding its constitutional mandate, raising concerns of judicial despotism.

Judicial Despotism Refers to the excessive or unchecked power exercised by the judiciary, often encroaching on the roles of the legislature and executive. Key aspects include: Overuse of Judicial Review: Undermining elected authority. Judicial Overreach: Entering policy-making or administrative areas. Lack of Accountability: Decisions are made without adequate checks. Erosion of Separation of Powers: Disturbing constitutional balance among branches.

Constitutional Framework of Judicial Review

Judicial Review

• Article 13: Declares laws violating Fundamental Rights as void, forming the basis for judicial review.
• Articles 32 and 226: Empower the SC (Art. 32) and HC (Art. 226) to issue writs for enforcing rights.
  • Article 32: Known as the “heart and soul” of the Constitution (Dr. B.R. Ambedkar).
  • Article 226: Broader scope, covering both Fundamental Rights and other legal rights.
• Ensures constitutional supremacy and acts as a check on the legislature and executive.

A judicial review is a constitutional process that validates laws. In contrast, Judicial activism involves broad judicial intervention in areas that may not strictly fall within the judiciary’s traditional role, potentially influencing public policy.

Basic Structure Doctrine

• Established in the Kesavananda Bharati case.
• Judicial review is part of the basic structure – cannot be amended.
• Positions judiciary as constitutional guardian.

Public Interest Litigation (PIL)

• Allows individuals to approach courts for a larger public interest.
• Expanded locus standi (right to approach the court) enables petitions by unaffected parties.

• Criticism: PIL overuse leads to interference in executive/legislative domains.

Expansion of Judicial Role: Evolution to Activism

• Emergency era to PIL
  • During the Emergency, SC took a pro-government stance.
  • Post-Emergency PIL emerged to protect human rights and the marginalised.
• Article 142
  • Grants SC power to deliver “complete justice.”
  • Landmark uses:
    • Babri Masjid case – prioritized peace.
    • Mob lynching guidelines, irretrievable breakdown of marriage.
  • Critics: Encourages overreach beyond legal bounds.

Criticism and Public Perception Allegations of judicial overreach or passivity Demonetisation: SC upheld it, seen as passive. Rafale Deal: SC endorsed deal, viewed as deference to executive. National Register of Citizens (NRC): Ignored marginalization concerns. Pegasus Spyware: Delayed action on privacy issues. Same-Sex Marriage: Refused to legalize. Delays: In hearing CAA, EVM, and Kashmir habeas corpus petitions. Judicial assertiveness and institutional checks Electoral Bonds: Struck down, upheld transparency. National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) Judgment: Asserted judicial independence. The NJAC Act, 2014, and the 99th Constitutional Amendment aimed to replace the collegium system with a commission for appointing judges to the higher judiciary. S C Verdict (2015) declared the act and the amendment unconstitutional. Tamil Nadu Governor Case: Protected federalism and constitutional order.

Judiciary in a Constitutional Democracy

• Parliamentary vs Constitutional supremacy: Balance between legislative will and constitutional limits.
• Jawaharlal Nehru’s caution: Warned against judiciary becoming a “third chamber.”
• Judiciary’s role:
  • Counter-majoritarian check.
  • Protects fundamental rights, minorities, federalism.
  • Steps in where executive or legislature fail to uphold constitutional values.

Are We Witnessing Judicial Despotism? – A Balanced View

Arguments indicating overreach

• Judicial entry into policy areas (education, environment).
• Overuse of PILs for governance.
• System-changing judgments by individual judges.
• Involvement in political cases (Rafale, appointments).

Counter-arguments

• Restraint in political matters (Courts often avoid intervening in political matters, respecting the role of elected bodies).
• Interventions arise from constitutional obligations.
• Courts act when legislature/executive fail.
• Protection of rights and marginalized communities.
• Maintains constitutional balance/ checks and balances between the three branches of government.

Way Forward

• Encourage institutional dialogue to define roles clearly.
• Reform PIL framework to prevent misuse.
• Increase transparency in Collegium system.
• Encourage judicial restraint and statesmanship.
• Ensure timely action by executive and legislature on public grievances.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – Judiciary} Parens Patriae Doctrine

• Context (ToI): Bombay HC invoked Parens Patriae to appoint a daughter as legal guardian for her mother with dementia.

Parens Patriae: Latin term meaning “parent of the nation”, empowering the state or courts to act as guardians for citizens unable to care for themselves. It reflects a sovereign duty to protect vulnerable individuals’ rights, dignity, and welfare lacking legal or physical agency.

Origin

• Originated in English common law, where the Crown acted as guardian for those unable to care for themselves. Gradually adopted worldwide to protect minors, persons with disabilities, mentally ill individuals and other incapacitated persons.

Constitutional, Legal and Judicial Backing in India

• Article 226: High Courts exercise extraordinary jurisdiction to protect fundamental rights and public interest under this provision.
• Article 21: Parens Patriae aligns with the Right to Life and Dignity, reinforcing the state’s duty to protect vulnerable populations.
• Social Justice Framework: Complements welfare legislation like Mental Healthcare Act, 2017 and Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016.
• Madras High Court invoked Parens Patriae doctrine for environmental protection, empowering the state to act as a guardian of nature’s rights.
  • Judicial precedents include directions to both central & state govts to protect legal entities like animals (Haryana, 2018), Ganga and Yamuna rivers (2017), and Sukhna Lake (2020).

{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Kasampatty Biodiversity Heritage Site *

• Context (TH): Tamil Nadu has notified Kasampatty (Veera Kovil) sacred grove and a biodiversity hotspot as a Biodiversity Heritage Site.

• Kasampatty, located near the Alagarmalai Reserve Forest in Kasampatty village (Dindigul district), becomes 2^nd Biodiversity Heritage Site in Tamil Nadu after Arittapatti in Madurai.

India’s first BHS Nallur Tamarind Grove is in Bengaluru (Karnataka).

Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS)

• BHS are well defined areas that are unique, ecologically fragile ecosystems – terrestrial, coastal and inland waters and marine having rich biodiversity comprising any of the following components:
  • Species richness
  • High endemism
  • Presence of rare and threatened species, keystone species, and species of evolutionary significance
  • Presence of wild ancestors of domestic/cultivated species
  • Past pre-eminence of biological components represented by fossil beds
  • Significant cultural, ethical or aesthetic values important for the maintenance of cultural diversity
• India has 48 Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS) including the Kasampatty.

Declaration

• Under Section 37 of Biological Diversity Act, 2002 the State Government in consultation with local bodies may notify areas of biodiversity importance as BHS.
• State Biodiversity Boards (SBB) may invite suggestion (or consider those already coming from communities) for declaration of BHSs, through BMCs and other relevant community institutions including gram sabhas, panchayat etc.
• Declaration of an area as BHS does not put any restriction on the prevailing practices and usages of the local communities.

Managament & Monitoring

• Management: The Biodiversity Management Committee or other appropriate institution as determined by relevant local body in the absence of BMCs.
• Monitoring of BHS: There may be a State-level Monitoring Committee constituted by the SBB.

{GS3 – Envi – Laws} Biological Diversity Rules, 2024 **

• Context (IE): Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change notified Biological Diversity Rules, 2024.

Provisions of the Notified Rules

• Notified under the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 to implement the amended provisions of the Biological Diversity (Amendment) Act, 2023.
  • Regulatory Structure under the 2002 Act: It establishes a 3-tier system with National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) at the central level; State Biodiversity Boards (SBB) at the state level; Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC) at the local level.
• Replaces the 2004 Rules to simplify compliance, promote research, support AYUSH systems and ease of doing business.
• Equitable Benefit Sharing (ABS): Funds from resource access are deposited in biodiversity funds and shared with local communities, while AYUSH practitioners and traditional knowledge holders are exempted from ABS payments.
• National Biodiversity Authority (NBA):
  • Chairperson: Equivalent to GoI Secretary, appointed by Central Govt, tenure of 3 years, re-appointment allowed till age 65. If on deputation/short term contract, s/he shouldn’t be below rank of Additional Secretary to GoI. Chairperson can resign by giving 1 month written notice to Central Govt.
  • Meetings: Held every 3 months, special meetings with 3-days notice and ordinary meetings with 15-days notice, if requested by 6 members.
  • Member Secretary: Appointed by Central Govt, equivalent to Joint Secretary, s/he manages records, meetings, correspondence.
  • Functions: Maintains biodiversity databases, administers National Biodiversity Fund (NBF) established under 2002 Act, approves biodiversity-related agreements, provides technical guidance.
• Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Approval:
  • Mandatory prior approval of NBA before grant of IPR (domestic/international) involving Indian biological resources or traditional knowledge.
  • Approval via agreement on mutually agreed terms; NBA to be notified within 45 days of IPR grant.
• Access Procedure for Biological Resources:
  • Online applications via web portal for research, bio-survey, bio-utilization and for commercial use.
  • Fee paid digitally to the NBF.
  • Approvals/rejections are publicized on NBA website.
  • Access may be restricted if it involves threatened/endemic species; Harms local communities or causes genetic erosion; Violates national interest or environmental norms.
• Penalty and Adjudication Mechanism:
  • Decriminalisation: Most offences under the Act decriminalised.
  • Appeals: Can be filed before the National Green Tribunal (NGT).
  • Monetary Penalties: Range from ₹1 lakh to ₹50 lakh, with additional penalties for repeat offences.
  • Adjudicating Officer: Not below Joint Secretary (GoI or state government).

{GS3 – S&T – Space} NASA’s Quantum Gravity Gradiometer

• Context (Space): NASA is developing first space-based quantum sensor to measure Earth’s gravity.

Quantum Gravity Gradiometer (QGG)

• It is a highly sensitive instrument that uses quantum principles to detect minute changes in gravitational acceleration.
  • QGG can detect gravitational variations as small as 10⁻¹⁵ m/s², surpassing traditional gravity sensors.
• Miniaturised: Unlike traditional instruments, the QGG sensor is compact and lightweight, about the size of a small washing machine. This reduces launch costs, making it ideal for space missions.
• Durability: Uses atoms instead of mechanical parts, making it less sensitive to environmental conditions.

Working Principle of QGG

• Atom Interferometry: Atoms are cooled to near absolute zero, and lasers manipulate their behaviour in free-fall to measure gravitational forces with extreme precision.
• Detection of Gravity Changes: The sensor identifies gravitational shifts caused by variations in mass distribution, such as mountains, tunnels, or hydrocarbon deposits.

Applications of QGG

• Mapping Large Landforms: This technique measures gravitational shifts caused by massive formations like the Himalayas, offering insights into their mass.
• Environmental Monitoring: This involves tracking the movement of water, ice, and geological materials, which is useful for climate change studies and glacial melt tracking.
• Resource Exploration: Detects underground structures, such as hydrocarbons, minerals, and aquifers, vital for resource management.
• National Security: Enhances monitoring of infrastructure and geological threats, crucial for strategic planning and defence.
• Archaeological and Heritage Preservation: Non-destructive detection of buried ruins or structures, aiding archaeological explorations.