Current Affairs – April 24, 2025

{GS2 – Governance – Welfare} India’s Direct Benefit Transfer System **

• Context (PIB): India’s DBT system improved welfare efficiency by curbing leakages.

Report Highlights

• Welfare Efficiency Index (WEI): The index was introduced to measure fiscal efficiency and social outcomes, rose from 0.32 in 2014 to 0.91 in 2023, reflecting significant improvements in welfare delivery.
  • Purpose: WEI quantifies DBT’s impact by assessing savings, subsidy reductions & beneficiary growth.
  • Components and their weightage)
    • DBT Savings (50%): ₹3.48 lakh crore in savings from reduced leakages.
    • Subsidy Reduction (30%): The reduction in subsidies as a share of total expenditure decreased from 16% (pre-2013) to 9% (2023-24).
    • Beneficiary Growth (20%): A 16-fold increase in beneficiaries, adjusted for population growth.

Key Findings from Sectoral Analysis

• MGNREGS: ₹42,534 crore saved by ensuring 98% of wages were transferred on time.
• Positive Correlation: A strong positive correlation (0.71) exists between beneficiary coverage and savings, showing that as coverage increased, savings also grew.
  • PM-KISAN: ₹22,106 crore saved by eliminating ineligible beneficiaries.
• Negative Correlation: A negative correlation (-0.74) between subsidy expenditure and welfare efficiency indicates reduced waste due to better targeting.
  • Food Subsidies (PDS): ₹1.85 lakh crore saved, accounting for 53% of total DBT savings, due to Aadhaar-linked ration card authentication.
  • Fertiliser Subsidies: ₹18,699.8 crore saved by targeting fertiliser distribution.

About DBT Initiative

• Launched in 2013, DBT reforms welfare delivery by improving targeting, reducing fraud, and ensuring accurate beneficiary identification.
• Initially overseen by the Planning Commission, it now falls under the Cabinet Secretariat.
• Key Features:
  • Aadhaar is preferred but not mandatory in DBT schemes.
  • JAM trinity (Jan Dhan bank accounts, Aadhaar, mobile) is crucial for targeted, transparent transfers.
  • The Electronic Payment Framework applies to all Central Sector and Centrally Sponsored Schemes, ensuring digitised, direct payments.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – Parliament} Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) *

• Context (PIB): PM convened a Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) meeting.

About CCS

• The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) is India’s highest decision-making body on:
  • National security
  • Defence and armed forces
  • Strategic policy matters
  • Nuclear doctrine and responses
  • Crisis and conflict management
• It is not a constitutional body but is an extra-constitutional entity functioning under the Government of India (Transaction of Business) Rules, 1961.

Article 77 of the Constitution allows the President to make rules for the transaction of business of the Government of India. Under this, the Transaction of Business Rules, 1961, were framed. These rules provide for the formation of Cabinet Committees, including the Cabinet Committee on Security.

• Composition: Chaired by the Prime Minister, permanent Members include:
  • Prime Minister
  • Minister of Defence
  • Minister of Home Affairs
  • Minister of Finance
  • Minister of External Affairs
  • Other key officials like the National Security Advisor (NSA), Cabinet Secretary, Home/Defence Secretaries, Chiefs of Armed Forces, and Heads of Intelligence Agencies attend as invitees for consultation and implementation.

Key Functions

• Defence Procurement: Approves large defence acquisitions and modernisation plans (e.g., Rafale jets, Tejas Mk-1A, S-400 systems).
• Internal and External Security: Handles responses to terror attacks, border escalations, insurgency, and law and order situations; coordinates among armed forces, intelligence agencies, and ministries.
• Nuclear Policy Oversight: Exercises political control over India’s Nuclear Command Authority (NCA), ensuring No First Use (NFU), massive retaliation policy, and civilian control with the PM as head of the Political Council of the NCA.
• Strategic Appointments: Finalises top-level appointments (e.g., service chiefs, NSA, R&AW head).
• Crisis Management: Leads emergency decisions during attacks, conflicts, or diplomatic standoffs, and prepares urgent policy proposals for Cabinet consideration.
• International Security Agreements: Evaluates security implications of treaties/agreements (e.g., suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty in 2025).
• Policy on Foreign Affairs with Security Implications: Deals with foreign policy matters with internal or external security bearings, including agreements with other countries on security-related issues.
• Space and Disarmament Policy: Occasionally deals with strategic issues related to space and disarmament, especially when they impact national security.
• Economic and Political Issues Affecting Security: Considers economic or political developments that may impinge on national security.

About Cabinet Committees Cabinet Committees are high-level, extra-constitutional bodies (not mentioned in the Constitution), formed to streamline decision-making and reduce the Cabinet’s workload by focusing on specific policy areas like security, economic affairs, and appointments. There are eight cabinet committees: Appointments Committee of the Cabinet Cabinet Committee on Accommodation Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs Cabinet Committee on Parliamentary Affairs Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs Cabinet Committee on Security Cabinet Committee on Investment and Growth Cabinet Committee on Employment and Skill Development Except for the Cabinet Committee on Parliamentary Affairs, chaired by the Minister of Parliamentary Affairs and the Cabinet Committee on Accommodation (CCA), chaired by the Home Minister, all other cabinet committees are chaired by the Prime Minister.

{GS3 – Envi – Plastic Pollution} Microplastics in Caddisfly Casings

• Context (Phy.org): The study found evidence of caddisfly larvae using microplastics to build their casings as far back as the 1970s, suggesting that microplastics have been contaminating the environment for at least the last half-century.

Caddisfly

• The caddisfly is a moth-like insect found in most countries worldwide. Adult caddisflies are commonly 3 to 15 millimetres in length.
• Caddisflies are widely distributed in freshwater habitats throughout the world.
• The insect makes its home near lakes and streams, where it deposits its eggs in huge masses of jelly.
  • Larvae hatch in few days and use nearby material to encase their bodies to protect against predators.

Credit: Wikipedia

Read More> Microplastics

{GS3 – IE – RBI} RBI’s Guidelines on Bank Accounts for Minors

• Context (TS): The RBI has issued new guidelines for banks on how to open and manage bank accounts for minors (children under 18 years).

• Applicability: All commercial and cooperative banks, including primary (urban) cooperative banks, state cooperative banks, and district central cooperative banks.
• Implementation: July 1, 2025.

Key Highlights

• Below 10 Years: Minors of any age, including mothers, can open and operate savings and term deposit accounts through their natural or legal guardians.
• 10 Years & Above: Permitted to independently open and manage their savings or term deposit accounts.
• Banking Facilities: Minor account holders may also be offered facilities like ATM/debit cards, internet banking, and cheque books.
• No Overdraft: Banks must ensure that overdrafts are not permitted and that always remain in credit.

{GS3 – Infra – Railways} Rishikesh-Karnaprayag Rail Link Project

• Context (IE): Indian Railways achieved a breakthrough in Tunnel No. 8 (Janasu tunnel) of the Rishikesh-Karnaprayag line in Uttarakhand, marking India’s longest transport tunnel at 14.58 km.

• Rishikesh-Karnaprayag rail link is 125.20 km with 83% of the alignment (104 km) constructed in tunnels.
  • It aims to enhance connectivity across five Himalayan districts- Devprayag, Srinagar, Rudraprayag, Gauchar, and Karnaprayag.
• Janasu tunnel passes through the Chandpur Formation of Jaunsar Group with complex rock conditions including quartz veins and schistose phyllite.
  • It passes through Seismic Zone IV, demanding advanced design due to tectonic activity.

Chandpur Formation (Jaunsar Group): A metamorphosed sedimentary unit comprising mainly slates, phyllites, and quartzites from the Lesser Himalayas. Quartz Veins are hard, silica-rich intrusions formed by hydrothermal processes that cut through host rocks. Schistose Phyllite is a fine-grained rock with a sheen and schistosity developed from low-grade metamorphism.

• It represents a significant leap toward realising the Char Dham Rail Connectivity Initiative under the government’s Viksit Bharat 2047 vision.

Technological Advancements

• Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) Use: First time Indian Railways deployed a TBM in the Himalayas, enabling 10.4 km of tunnel excavation.
• New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM): Applied for 4.11 km, which involves controlled small-scale excavation for better stability.

Also refer to Silkyara-Bend-Barkot Tunnel.

{GS3 – S&T – AI} AI in Weather Forecasting **

• Context (TH): AI is being explored to enhance weather forecasting, especially for extreme events like heat waves, floods, and cyclones, overcoming limitations of traditional methods.

Extreme Weather Events: Weather conditions deviating significantly from the usual weather. These conditions may persist for an extended period or return to normal within a day or two.

Traditional Vs. AI Weather Forecasting

Aspect	Traditional Weather Prediction Model	AI Models for Weather Prediction
Approach	Physics-based; uses numerical weather prediction (NWP) models	Data-driven; learns patterns from vast datasets
Core Principle	Simulates atmospheric behaviour using fluid dynamics and thermodynamics	Identifies statistical relationships without understanding physical laws
Data Sources	Observational data from satellites, weather stations, radars	Historical and real-time datasets on temperature, humidity, wind speed etc.
Computational Requirements	Requires high-performance supercomputers for complex simulations	Needs high-volume data processing capabilities, often using Graphics processing unit (GPU)
Prediction Method	Solves physical equations to forecast weather	Uses machine learning algorithms to forecast events
Examples of Use	Long-range forecasts, global climate models	Short-term event prediction like cyclones, extreme rainfall, lightning

Advantages of AI Models

• Big Data Utilization: AI models process large datasets from various sources like satellites, radars, and even social media to detect trends and patterns.
• Adaptability: AI models can be tailored to specific regions, considering geographical and climatic variations, leading to more relevant predictions.
• Real-Time Forecasting: AI enables “nowcasting,” offering real-time forecasts for critical disaster preparedness and urban planning.
• Nonlinear Relationships: AI can uncover cause-effect relationships that traditional models may miss, improving accuracy in forecasting extreme weather.

AI/ML in Extreme Weather Prediction

• Emerging Role: AI/ML is useful, particularly for predicting extreme weather events like cyclones, heat waves, and floods. These models can analyze worst-case scenarios and aid in risk communication.
• Hybrid Models: Combining AI/ML with traditional physics-based models aim to overcome challenges related to data inconsistencies, unpredictability of weather systems by improving forecasting accuracy.

• Challenges: Despite their potential, predicting rapid and localised extreme weather remains difficult due to data management issues and model complexities.

Challenges in AI-Based Weather Forecasting

• Complexity: Weather systems are chaotic, requiring sophisticated models to capture dynamic behaviors.
• Human Resource Gap: There is a shortage of experts with the necessary interdisciplinary knowledge of AI/ML and meteorology, hindering progress.
• Inadequate Sensor Network: India’s diverse geography requires region-specific models, but gaps in meteorological infrastructure hinder data accuracy.
• Climate Change: AI models trained on current data may struggle to predict future weather in a warming world, as atmospheric conditions evolve.
• Data Issues: High-quality, consistent datasets are essential for effective AI training, but errors and gaps in the data, especially in remote areas, reduce model reliability.
• Black Box Nature: Internal workings and decision-making processes of AI systems, particularly deep learning models, are not transparent or easily understood by humans, making their predictions difficult to interpret, leading to trust issues among meteorologists.

Weather Forecasting in India

• Current Methods: India primarily relies on satellite data and computer models for weather forecasting. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) uses INSAT satellites to track cloud motion, water vapor, and rainfall estimation.
  • INSAT-3D, INSAT-3DR, and INSAT-3DS satellites are used for meteorological observations in India.

Govt Initiatives to Improve Weather Forecasting

• Mission Mausam (2024): A ₹2,000 crore project to enhance weather forecasting through AI-based modeling, next-gen radar systems and improved dissemination infrastructure.
• National Monsoon Mission (2012): Focuses on real-time, ground-level data integration for accurate monsoon predictions across India.
• WINDS by Agriculture Ministry: Aims to install over 200,000 ground stations to create a nationwide hyper-local weather data network for long-term use.
• AI-Driven Monsoon Models: Developed by IIT-Delhi and IIT-Hyderabad, these models showed a 61.9% success rate from 2002–2022, exceeding traditional models in advance rainfall prediction.
• Tech Upgrades under Mission Mausam: Includes use of Doppler radar, satellite-based systems and machine learning to refine rain, snow and urban weather forecasts.
• No. of Doppler radars increased from 15 (2013) to 37 (2023) to improve real-time rainfall forecasts.

{GS3 – S&T – Bio} Lipids Guides in Evolution

• Context (TH): Researchers at CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) find that DNA, proteins, and lipids guide evolution.
• Researchers focused on a group of membrane proteins called Respiratory Complex 1 (RC1) and found evidence suggesting that proteins and lipids have likely co-evolved to function specifically together within their respective species.

About RC1 They are found in the mitochondrial inner membranes of all eukaryotic cells that require oxygen to respire. RC1 are essential for cells to produce energy when the body breathes oxygen. Since RC1 is essential for respiration in living cells, mutations in it are expected to cause diseases.

Lipids

• A lipid is a water-insoluble organic compound. They include fats, waxes, oils, hormones, etc.
• Oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen atoms combine to form lipids through chemical bonding. Lipids make up about 30% of a cell’s dry weight.
• They’re part of cell membranes and help control what goes in and out of your cells. They help move and store energy, absorb vitamins, and make hormones.

Various Functions of Lipids

• Triglycerides: Transport and store energy.
• Steroid Hormones: Send messages in cells.
• Bile salts from cholesterol help digest fat.
• Fatty Acids: Metabolise to create energy.
• Phospholipids are like gatekeepers that let some molecules into your cells but require others to come in with proteins.
• Cholesterol: Building cell membranes, producing hormones like vitamin D, aiding digestion, etc.

{GS3 – S&T – Defence} Hydrogen-Based Explosive *

• Context (ET): Chinese researchers have tested a novel non-nuclear hydrogen-based explosive device developed by the China State Shipbuilding Corporation (CSSC).

Key Features

• Utilizes Magnesium hydride (MgH₂) instead of nuclear fusion/fission.

Magnesium hydride (MgH₂) is used instead of nuclear fusion or fission because it produces no harmful radiation or fallout, making it safer and more controlled for precision strikes. It is also more cost-effective, integrates with clean energy technologies, and avoids geopolitical concerns associated with nuclear weapons, aligning with China’s broader military modernisation goals.

• Weighs only 2 kg—compact, tactical, and portable.

• Working mechanism: Initiated via thermal decomposition of MgH₂ by a conventional explosive.
  • Releases hydrogen gas, which ignites upon mixing with air, forming a high-temperature fireball.
  • Produces temperatures >1000°C, much higher than Trinitrotoluene’s (TNT) blast force.
  • Generates sustained combustion instead of a short-lived shockwave.

• Delivers 428.43 kilopascals peak overpressure at 2 meters—about 40% of TNT’s pressure.
• Combustion sustains for over 2 seconds, enhancing area impact and heat damage.
• Capable of burning through materials like aluminium alloys — key for infrastructure targeting.
• Uses a novel “one-pot synthesis” to enhance safety and cost-efficiency.

One-pot synthesis is a streamlined chemical process where all reactants are combined in one container to undergo the desired transformations, simplifying production and reducing time, labour, and contamination risks. It is particularly efficient for producing complex compounds like magnesium hydride.

China’s shift towards eco-friendly defence innovations

• Electric propulsion systems are used in China’s advanced Type 055 Renhai-class warships.
• The launch of methane-powered rockets in 2023.
• Using MgH₂ in explosives and as a clean fuel source for submarines and long-endurance drones.

Feature	Traditional hydrogen-bomb	Atomic bomb	China’s new hydrogen-based explosive	Conventional explosives
Energy source	Nuclear Fusion	Nuclear Fission	Chemical Reaction (MgH2 Decomposition)	Chemical Reaction
Key materials	Deuterium, Tritium, Fission Trigger (Plutonium/Uranium)	Uranium-235, Plutonium-239	Magnesium Hydride	TNT, C4,RDX
Reaction produces	Massive shockwave and heat, nuclear radiation	Shockwave, heat, nuclear radiation	Sustained high-temperature fireball, minimal blast	Short-duration heat & shockwave
Radiation	Yes (ionizing radiation and fallout)	Yes (ionizing radiation and fallout)	No	No
Scale of destruction	Strategic, wide-area (city-scale)	Tactical to strategic (city/block-scale)	Tactical, infrastructure-level, precision targeting	Tactical, limited-area
Potential military applications	Nuclear deterrence, Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)	Deterrence, tactical strikes	Precision targeting, infrastructure denial, area control	Tactical operations, infantry support
Examples	N/A (hypothetical use)	Hiroshima, Nagasaki	N/A (Newly Developed)	Standard bombs, grenades, shells

Also, refer>Nuclear Fission, Components of Nuclear Reactor, Types of Nuclear Reactors, Nuclear Criticality in Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Energy.

{GS3 – S&T – Defence} Surya Kiran Aerobatic Team (SKAT)

• Context (IE | ET): Surya Kiran Aerobatic Team (SKAT) is the official aerobatics display team of the Indian Air Force’s 52 Squadron, nicknamed “The Sharks”, based at Bidar Air Force Station, Karnataka.

• It aims to project professionalism, precision & skill of IAF as part of its Outreach Mission for IAF’s civilian engagement and youth inspiration efforts.
• Motto: ‘Sadaiva Sarvottam’ (Always the Best).
• Formation and Revival: Established in 1996 using Kiran Mk-II aircraft, paused in 2011, and revived in 2015 with British-origin Hawk Mk-132 trainers.

Source: AT

• Aircraft: Operates nine modified Hawk Mk-132 advanced jet trainers.

• Domestic and Global Presence: SKAT has performed over 500 airshows in India and abroad, including Sri Lanka, Myanmar, UAE, Singapore and China.

{GS3 – S&T – Space} Dark Matter

• Context (TH): Bullseye Galaxy (LEDA 1313424) can provide insights into the dark matter.

• It is an invisible, mysterious substance making up about 27% of the universe. It doesn’t emit or interact with light, making it detectable only through its gravitational effects on visible matter.

Key features

• Invisible: Does not emit or reflect light.
• Gravitational influence: Exerts gravitational pull, affecting galaxy rotation and large-scale structure.
• Non-baryonic: Not made of the same particles as normal matter (protons, neutrons). Cold and Slow-Moving Particles move slowly, allowing clumping into large halos around galaxies.

Evidence

• Galaxy rotation curves: Galaxies spin faster than expected, suggesting unseen mass.
• Gravitational lensing: Light bending around galaxy clusters indicates mass beyond visible matter.
• Cosmic microwave background: Shows effects of dark matter on the early universe.
• Galaxy clusters: Observations of clusters like the Bullet Cluster confirm dark matter’s existence.

Relevance

• Galaxy formation: Dark matter acts as a gravitational scaffold, aiding galaxy and star formation.
• Cosmic structure: Influences the distribution of galaxies and forms the cosmic web.
• Refining Models: Vital in cosmological simulations, helping scientists understand universe formation.

{GS3 – S&T – Space} Discovery of Bullseye Galaxy

• Context (TH): A rare nine-ringed galaxy named the Bullseye Galaxy (LEDA 1313424) has been discovered through observations by the Hubble Space Telescope and the W.M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii.

  

  Credit:EN

Key Features

• Formation: Likely caused by a blue dwarf galaxy passing through its centre ~50 million years ago, creating ripple-induced rings.
• Temporary structure: Rings will fade over billions of years, creating a more typical galactic shape.
• Massive size: Approx. 250,000 light-years wide — 2.5 times the Milky Way’s diameter.
• Scientific paradox: Despite high hydrogen content, it shows low star formation activity.
• Potential GLSB: Candidate may evolve into a Giant Low Surface Brightness galaxy due to structural similarities like a large disk, high hydrogen, and low star formation.
  • Likely lost a 10^th ring — sign of transition to a GLSB.

About Giant Low Surface Brightness (GLSB) Galaxies

• A rare and massive class of spiral galaxies characterised by extremely diffuse stellar disks. Despite its vast size and rich hydrogen content, it exhibits very low surface brightness. Hence, it is hard to detect.
• Typically embedded within large halos of dark matter, especially in the outer regions and neutral hydrogen gas(HI), the raw material for star formation.
• Show flat or slowly rising rotation curves, consistent with massive, extended dark matter halos.
• Often host smaller and less evolved central black holes than other galaxies of similar size.

Implications of GLSB for Dark Matter and Cosmology

• Insight into Dark Matter: GLSB galaxies help reveal the distribution and behavior of dark matter, particularly in how it influences galaxy formation.
• Refining Cosmological Simulations: Studying GLSBs can improve the accuracy of existing cosmological models and simulations by addressing discrepancies in galaxy formation.
• Testing Cosmological Theories: The unusual morphology of GLSB galaxies provides a means to test and refine current cosmological models, especially concerning the role of dark matter in shaping galaxies.

Also refer to The Universe, Big Bang Theory and The Evolution of The Universe.

{GS3 – S&T – Space} Shenzhou-20

• Context (TH): China is set to launch its ninth crewed Shenzhou-20 mission.

Shenzhou is a series of crewed spacecraft developed by China as part of its ambitious human spaceflight program, the China Manned Space Program (CMS), also known as Project 921. The Shenzhou spacecraft is central to China’s efforts to develop independent spaceflight capabilities and establish a long-term human presence in low Earth orbit.

Key Highlights of the mission

• Designed to transport a crew of three astronauts (taikonauts) to the Tiangong space station.
• Planned for approximately 180 days (six months) in orbit.
• Primary goal is to complete an in-orbit crew rotation with the outgoing Shenzhou-19 team and continue the operation of the Tiangong space station.

Also refer to Shenzhou-18.

{GS3 – S&T – Tech} First Indian Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) **

• Context (TH): India’s first Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) in Kalpakkam to be commissioned by September 2026. It marks the second stage of India’s three-stage nuclear programme.

Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) Advanced nuclear reactors are designed to generate more fissile material than they consume, effectively “breeding” fuel as they operate. Use fast (high-energy) neutrons instead of slow (thermal) neutrons, and typically employ a mixture of uranium and plutonium as fuel. Instead of moderator, liquid sodium is commonly used as a coolant to maintain fast neutron spectrum. Core is surrounded by a “breeder blanket” of fertile material (like uranium-238), which absorbs excess neutrons and is converted into fissile plutonium-239, creating more fuel for future use. Making FBRS highly efficient in utilising nuclear fuel resources compared to conventional reactors.

Key Features of PFBR

• Type: Sodium-cooled fast breeder reactor (pool-type design).
• Capacity: 500 MWe (1,253 MW thermal).
• Fuel: MOX (Uranium-Plutonium mix) from reprocessed PHWR spent fuel.
• Coolant: Liquid sodium (1,750+ tonnes) enabling efficient heat transfer and fast neutron spectrum.
• Breeding: Converts U-238 to Pu-239 (core) and Th-232 to U-233 (blanket).
• Closed fuel cycle: Recycles spent fuel, minimising waste and enhancing resource use.
• Safety: Third-gen design with passive cooling, negative void coefficient, and dual SCRAM systems.
• Indigenous: Fully designed/built by BHAVINI and Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR).

Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited (BHAVINI) is a government-owned company under the Department of Atomic Energy, established in 2003 to construct, commission, and operate fast breeder reactors in India.

• Location: Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu (expected to be operational by 2025).
• Strategic role: Bridges to thorium-based reactors (Stage III) using India’s vast Th-232 reserves.

Significance of PFBR

• Energy Security: Enables India to utilize its vast thorium reserves, reducing dependence on imported uranium and enhancing long-term energy security.
• Strategic Milestone: Marks India’s entry into the elite group of nations (after Russia) with commercial fast breeder reactor technology, strengthening global nuclear standing.
• Three-Stage Nuclear Program: Crucial step in the second stage of India’s three-stage nuclear program, paving the way for future thorium-based reactors and sustainable nuclear power.
• Fuel Sustainability: Breeds more fissile material (plutonium) than it consumes, ensuring a sustainable and efficient nuclear fuel cycle.

Fissile material Refers to substances whose atomic nuclei can undergo nuclear fission when struck by low-energy (thermal) neutrons, enabling a self-sustaining chain reaction. Fissile materials are distinct from merely fissionable materials because they can sustain a chain reaction with slow neutrons, making them critical for nuclear energy production Example: Uranium-235, plutonium-239, and uranium-233—materials essential for fuelling nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons.

• Waste Reduction: Utilises and reprocesses spent fuel from earlier reactors, significantly reducing nuclear waste and maximising resource utilisation.
• Indigenous Technology: Entirely designed and built by Indian agencies, promoting self-reliance and technological advancement in the nuclear sector.
• Foundation for Expansion: Success of PFBR will lead to the construction of more fast breeder reactors, accelerating India’s nuclear power capacity and supporting its clean energy goals.
• Cost Competitiveness: Offers electricity generation costs comparable to conventional and other nuclear power plants, making it economically viable.
• Advanced Safety: Incorporates inherent passive safety features, ensuring prompt and safe shutdown during emergencies

Challenges for India

• Thorium Utilisation: Requires large-scale FBR deployment and U-233 production; still experimental.
• Sodium Handling: PFBR’s liquid sodium coolant is reactive with air/water, demanding stringent safety.
• Closed Fuel Cycle: Reprocessing spent fuel needs advanced facilities, raising proliferation concerns.
• BHAVINI’s Mandate: Balancing indigenous R&D (e.g., IGCAR’s FBTR learnings) with global collaboration for technology gaps.
• Regulatory Delays: Stringent safety reviews for PFBR-like projects slow commissioning.

Also refer > Three-stage programme, Nuclear fission uranium and thorium distribution in India.

{Prelims – In News} Mummification

• Context (IDR): Researchers have uncovered mummified remains of lions, cobras, and crocodiles dating back to the 7^th century B.C.

What is Mummification?

• Mummification is the preservation of a body after death, practised most famously by the ancient Egyptians. It was a sacred ritual rooted in deep religious beliefs about the afterlife.
  • A mummy is a person or animal whose soft tissue has been preserved.
• It was part of a larger belief system in Ma’at (cosmic balance) and the soul’s journey. The preserved body acted as a home for the Ka (life force), Ba (personality), and Akh (spirit) after death.
• Pharaohs (kings of ancient Egypt) were commonly mummified and buried in elaborate tombs. Non-royals were also mummified. Ushabtis (u-shop-tees), the servants of the deceased, were also believed to carry out tasks in the afterlife.
• The ancient Egyptians mummified many animals, including dogs, cats, and birds. They also mummified food so they would have something to eat in the afterlife. This is known as a “victual mummy.”