Current Affairs – March 14-15, 2025

{GS1 – Geo – HG} Tool Use in History

• Context (IE): A study published last week in the journal Nature revealed that our ancient ancestors used bone tools at least 1.5 million years ago, nearly a million years earlier than previously believed.

Key Highlights of Study

• Stone Tools: The earliest known stone tools date back to approximately 3.3 million years ago, based on archaeological findings that have survived to the present.
• Wooden Tools: The earliest proof of wooden tool use is from around 700,000 years ago. However, our ancestors probably used wooden tools much earlier, but these did not last over time.

The Early View: Toolmaking as a Uniquely Human Trait

• Oakley’s Theory: Kenneth Oakley, in the late 1940s, identified tool-use and tool-making as uniquely human traits that implied “a marked capacity for conceptual thought”.
  • In his influential book, Man the Tool-Maker (1949), Oakley wrote: “The real difference between what we choose to call an ape and what we call man is one of mental capacity.”
• Louis Leakey’s Study (1964): Suggested that a set of 1.7-million-year-old fossils found at Olduvai Gorge (in Tanzania) belonged to the genus Homo because toolmaking was a uniquely human trait.
  • He named the species Homo habilis, or “handyman,” based on its presumed ability to craft tools.

Tool Use in the Animal Kingdom

• Charles Darwin: Chimpanzees, our closest living relatives, used objects that could be considered tools.
• Jane Goodall: In the 1960s, he discovered that chimpanzees not only used natural objects like sticks but also occasionally modified these tools for better efficiency

Rethinking Early Tool Use: Challenging Human Exceptionalism

• In 1983, Mary Marzke’s study of Lucy’s hand morphology concluded that “the types of grips that Lucy and her kind may have used…could enable it to manipulate stone tools.
  • Paleoanthropologist Donald Johanson discovered Lucy in 1974—a 3.2-million-year-old- old human ancestor of the small-brained species Australopithecus afarensis.
• Her theory gained strong archaeological support in 2010 when researchers in Ethiopia uncovered evidence of stone-tool-assisted animal tissue consumption dating back 3.39 million years at Dikika.
• Later, another team unearthed the oldest known stone tools to date in Lomekwi, Kenya, dated to 3.3 million years ago.
• These discoveries fundamentally reshaped our understanding of early tool use, challenging long-held beliefs about human uniqueness.

Ditching ‘Human Exceptionalism’

• The works of Jane Goodall and Mary Marzke challenge the concept of “human exceptionalism”—the belief that humans are fundamentally different and superior to all other species.
• Today’s experts suggest that our ape-like ancestors may have used sticks and stones in their daily lives millions of years before the oldest known tools.
• This suggests that tool use began before the emergence of our genus, Homo, and was not a uniquely human trait, as previously thought.

{GS1 – WH – Events} Breakdown of Soviet Union **

• Context (TH): Lithuania was the first country to be independent from the Soviet Union in 1991.

About Soviet Union

• Soviet Union: Officially known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.), was a socialist state in northern Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991 with Moscow as capital.
• Location: It was the largest country in the world by area, spanning from the Baltic and Black Seas to the Pacific Ocean, consisting of 15 republics.
  • Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.
• Political System: One-party state governed by Communist Party, with a centrally planned economy.
• Role in Cold War: It played a significant role in global affairs, rivalling the U.S. during the Cold War.
• Collapse of USSR: The U.S.S.R. dissolved in 1991, leading to the independence of its republics.

Credit: Britannica

Key Causes of Disintegration

• Economic Decline: The centrally planned Soviet economy struggled to keep pace with the West leading to stagnation, shortages, and inefficiency.
  • Economic sanctions and an arms race with the U.S. strained the Soviet economy.
• Gorbachev’s Reforms: Perestroika (economic restructuring) and Glasnost (openness) aimed to revitalise the system and weaken communist control.
• Rise of Nationalism: Republics like Lithuania, Ukraine, and Georgia demanded independence.
• Failure in Afghanistan (1979–1989): The costly war drained resources and reduced Soviet influence.
• The Fall of the Eastern Bloc: Collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe in 1989 weakened Soviet Union’s grip on its satellite states and emboldened independence movements within its borders.
• August 1991 Coup Attempt: A failed coup by hardline communists further destabilised the Soviet government and accelerated its disintegration.

Final Collapse

• The Soviet Union collapsed in December 1991, marking the end of the Cold War and a shift in the global balance of power in favour of the US.
• Emerged 15 independent states from the former Soviet republics. Among this, Russia, led by Boris Yeltsin, was the largest successor state.

Cold War (1947–1991)

• Cold War: Geopolitical and ideological conflict between USA and Soviet Union after World War II.
• No Direct War: It was marked by political, economic, and military rivalry but never escalated into direct warfare between the two superpowers.

Key Features

• Capitalism vs. Communism: The USA promoted democracy and free markets, whereas the USSR pushed socialism and state control.
• Political Alliances:
  • NATO (1949): Led by the USA, the Western bloc defence alliance.
  • Warsaw Pact (1955): USSR’s response, an Eastern bloc military alliance.
• Proxy Wars: Indirect conflicts in Korea (1950-53), Vietnam (1955-75), Afghanistan (1979-89).
• Arms Race: Development of nuclear weapons and military buildup (e.g., Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962).

{GS2 – Polity – Laws} Immigration and Foreigners Bill 2025

• Context (TH | HT): Govt introduced the Immigration and Foreigners Bill 2025 in Lok Sabha to streamline immigration laws.

Need for the Bill

• Legal Simplification: Repeals four existing laws to remove redundancy and overlapping provisions.
• Tourism Impact: Significant contributor to GDP, necessitating well-structured immigration policies.
• Efficient Immigration System: Establishes a uniform framework for managing foreign nationals in India.
• National Security: Strengthens regulatory mechanisms to balance sovereignty and foreign entry.

Key Provisions of the Immigration Bill

• Regulation of Foreigners’ Stay and Movement: Covers entry, exit, stay, movement, and mandatory registration of foreign nationals to improve monitoring.
• Stricter Monitoring of Foreign Nationals: Foreign students, patients in hospitals, and long-term foreign residents will be subject to stricter tracking to prevent misuse of visas.
• Liability of Transport Operators: Airlines, shipping companies, and other carriers must verify passenger documents before boarding or face penalties for transporting unauthorised foreigners.
• Stricter Penalties for Violations: Unauthorized entry can attract fines up to ₹5 lahks, while using fake passports can lead to penalties of ₹10 lahks to curb illegal immigration and document fraud.
• Revised Visa and Passport Rules: Central Govt will have greater control over visa issuance, foreigner registration, and tracking mechanisms to enhance security and prevent visa misuse.
• Enhanced Powers for Immigration Officers: Officers will have the authority to detain, investigate, and deport illegal immigrants, restrict the movement of foreigners, and deny entry on security grounds.
• Govt Authority in Immigration Matters: Empowers the Centre to issue removal orders, delegate enforcement powers, and exempt specific categories of foreigners as needed.
• Institutional Reporting Requirements: Educational institutions, hospitals, and private residence owners must report to foreign nationals under their care to ensure accountability and prevent overstays.

Concerns Raised

• Constitutional Violation: Alleged infringement of Article 14 (Equality before Law).
• Lack of Appeal Mechanism: Immigration officer decisions cannot be contested, violating natural justice principles.
• Risk of Political Misuse: Fear of denying entry based on ideological reasons.
• Impact on Talent Inflow: Could discourage foreign students, professionals, and medical tourists.

{GS2 – Social Sector – Health – Issues} Polypharmacy and Self-Medication **

• Context (TH): Study finds high rates of polypharmacy and self-medication among older adults in India.

Key Findings

• Polypharmacy: The study found that the prevalence of polypharmacy was 33.7%, with significant associations with multiple comorbidities.
  • Comorbidities refer to presence of two or more medical conditions in a person at the same time.
• Self-Medication: The prevalence of self-medication was 19.7%, associated with factors such as staying alone, multiple comorbidities and recent hospitalisations.
  • Self-medication involves individuals selecting and using medicines to treat conditions or symptoms that they have self-diagnosed.
• Lack of Awareness: Among those who self-medicated, a majority lacked knowledge about self-medication and did not understand the risks associated with it.

Implications of Polypharmacy and Unsafe Self-Medication

• It can lead to severe health risks, including adverse drug interactions, increased side effects, antibiotic resistance, and reduced treatment effectiveness.
• It may also lead to delay in proper diagnosis and contribute to medication dependency.

India’s Interventions to Promote Safe Medication

• Pharmacovigilance Programme of India: India’s flagship drug safety monitoring programme, which collects, collates and analyses drug-related adverse events
• Schedule H and H1 Regulations: Restrict the over-the-counter sales of prescription drugs to prevent misuse and combat the growing problem of antibiotic resistance.
• Jan Aushadhi Scheme: Affordable generic medicines to reduce dependency on unsafe alternatives.
• The Red Line Campaign: Launched by the Ministry of Health, aims to reduce antimicrobial resistance by discouraging the misuse of antibiotics.

{GS3 – Envi – CC} Impact of Climate Change on India’s Wheat Production

• Context (TH): India recorded its hottest February in 124 years in 2025, with extreme March heat waves threatening wheat yield, quality, and food security.

Wheat in India: Key Facts

• Staple Crop: Second most important staple food, mainly consumed in Northern & North-Western India.
• Nutritional Value: Rich in calcium, thiamine, riboflavin and iron.
• Crop Cycle: Rabi crop, sown in October-December and harvested in February-April.
• Major Producing States: Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh dominate production.
• Growing Conditions: Requires a cool climate, moderate rainfall (75-100 cm) and well-drained alluvial or clay loam soils.
• Impact of Climate: Western Disturbances aid yield, but frost during flowering causes heavy losses.
• Land Under Cultivation: India is the second-largest producer, behind China, with ~9% of India’s total land area under wheat farming.
• Yield Performance: India’s average yield is 3.0 tonnes/ha, lower than France and the US.
• Procurement: 2025-26 procurement target set at 30 MT.
• Export: Exports banned since May 2022 due to global supply concerns.

Impact of Climate Change on Wheat Production

• Delayed Sowing Patterns: Warming Indian Ocean disrupts Kharif season, delaying Rabi sowing and exposing wheat to early heat stress.
• Reduced Yield: Rising temperatures accelerate ripening, shortening the grain-filling period and reducing overall wheat yield.
• Degraded Grain Quality: Heat stress lowers starch content, leading to harder grains, poor milling quality, and lower market value.
• Resource Misuse: Farmers overuse fertilisers, pesticides, and fungicides to combat climate stress, degrading soil health.
• Economic Distress: Wheat procurement in 2024-25 was way below the 34.15 million tonnes target, impacting farmer incomes.
• Threat to Food Security: Lower wheat production strains the Public Distribution System (PDS) and risks inflation in domestic food prices.

Stages of Wheat Growth Affected by Heat Stress

1. Germination to Emergence: Rising temperatures can delay or hinder seedling emergence.
2. Vegetative Growth (Emergence to Anthesis): Heat stress affects photosynthesis and spikelet formation.
3. Reproductive Growth (Anthesis to Maturity): Early flowering and faster ripening reduce grain weight and nutritional value.

Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies

• Heat-Resilient Varieties: Developing varieties with shorter growth cycles can minimise heat exposure.
• Early Sowing Practices: Sowing wheat earlier in heat-prone regions can prevent crops from maturing during peak temperatures.
• Enhanced Weather Monitoring: Strengthening advisory systems helps farmers make informed decisions on sowing and irrigation.
• Precision Farming Techniques: Drip irrigation, soil sensors, and controlled fertiliser use improve agricultural efficiency.
• Policy Support: Expanding compensation schemes, climate-specific insurance, and credit facilities can protect farmers from climate-induced losses.

{GS3 – IE – Banking} Cryptocurrency Framework

• Context (IE): US’s Shift in Crypto Strategy prompts India to rethink its cryptocurrency framework.

US Shift in Crypto Policy

• 2019: Trump expressed his scepticism about cryptocurrencies, stating that he was “not a fan of bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies, which are not money, and whose value is highly volatile & based on thin air.”
• 2024: He promised to appoint crypto-friendly regulators to make US as “crypto capital of the planet.”
• Recently, Donald Trump launched a memecoin, $Trump, and more recently, passed an executive order establishing a Strategic Bitcoin Reserve and a US Digital Asset Stockpile.

India’s Approach

• 2013: The RBI first expressed its concerns about virtual currencies like Bitcoin and warned that since VDAs are unregulated, it could lead to potential financial instability.
• 2018: RBI issued a circular that barred financial institutions (like banks) from offering services to businesses involved with virtual currencies.
• 2020: In IMAI v. RBI, the SC overturned the 2018 RBI circular.  The Court ruled that the circular violated the fundamental right to trade under Article 19(1)(g) of the Constitution of India.
• 2021: Indian government introduced a draft bill in 2021. It proposed to ban private cryptocurrencies while simultaneously laying the groundwork for Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC).
• 2022: Introduced a 30% tax on crypto income and a 1% deduction on each transaction since 2022.

Why India Must Rethink Its Crypto Policy

• Aligning with Global Standards: Cryptocurrencies are borderless; with major economies like the U.S. adopting crypto-friendly regulations, India must shift from restrictive policies to a balanced, growth-driven framework to stay competitive.
• Preventing Capital Flight: Restrictive regulations may push investors and businesses abroad, leading to capital outflows and missed opportunities.
• India’s Rapidly Expanding Crypto Market: Despite regulatory uncertainty, India has over 10 crore crypto users. A structured framework can harness this growth while ensuring investor security.
• Strengthening Cybersecurity: A structured regulatory framework can combat fraud, scams, and cyber threats through strict compliance measures.
• Enhancing India’s Position as a Fintech Hub: A well-regulated crypto sector can attract global investments, boost fintech startups, and drive economic growth.
• Supporting Digital Rupee Integration: A balanced approach can ensure coexistence between private cryptocurrencies and India’s CBDC while maintaining monetary stability.

Read More> Cryptocurrency and difference with CBDC.

{GS3 – IE – Banking} Rising Consumer Credit: A Concern for the Economy?

• Context (TH): The RBI’s Financial Stability Report 2024 highlights a rise in household debt and a shift toward prime borrowers, but increasing consumer loans raise macroeconomic concerns.

Trends in Household Debt

• Rising Debt-to-GDP Ratio: Increased from 36.6% in June 2021 to 42.9% in June 2024.
• Falling Asset Holdings: Declined from 110.4% of GDP in June 2021 to 108.3% in March 2024, indicating more borrowing for consumption rather than asset creation.
• Comparison with Emerging Economies: India’s household debt remains lower but is rising faster.

Nature of Borrowing and Borrowers

• Increasing Borrowers: Growth driven by increase in borrowers rather than rising individual indebtedness.
• Prime & Super-Prime Borrowers: Nearly 2/3^rd of total debt belongs to these creditworthy categories.
• Sub-Prime Borrowers Declining: Reduction in risky lending shift toward healthier credit growth.

Rising Borrowing for Consumption

• Increase in Consumption Loans: More households are borrowing for consumption rather than housing, vehicles, or education.
• Income-Based Borrowing Patterns: Super-prime borrowers used 64% of loans for asset creation; Sub-prime borrowers used nearly half of the loans for consumption.
• Unsecured Credit Growth: Personal loans and credit card debt increasing, particularly among lower-income groups.

Financial Stress Among Lower-Income Households

• Rising Loan Delinquencies: Higher defaults in personal and credit card debt from September 2023 to September 2024.
• Loan Interlinkage Risks: Defaults in unsecured loans (credit cards/personal loans) can classify housing/vehicle loans as non-performing assets (NPAs), worsening financial distress.
• Macroeconomic Implications: Increased debt burden on lower-income households can weaken financial stability.

Impact on Economic Multiplier and Growth

• Multiplier: Higher for low-income groups as they spend a greater proportion of income.

• Debt Burden and Lower Spending: Increased debt servicing reduces disposable income, lowering consumption and reducing the multiplier effect.
• Policy Challenge: If borrowing replaces income growth, measures like income tax cuts may have limited economic impact.

Concerns Over Financial Innovations

• Ease of Credit Access: Innovations like digital lending & credit cards have increased borrowing capacity.
• Risk of Over-Indebtedness: Exposure to excessive debt could push vulnerable households toward financial instability.

Policy Considerations

• Need for Balanced Credit Growth: Focus on reducing unsecured lending risks while ensuring access to productive credit.
• Macroeconomic Vigilance: Monitoring financial stress and ensuring that credit expansion supports sustainable economic growth.

{GS3 – IE – Securities} SEBI’s Proposed Changes in Short-Selling Regulations

• Context (TH): SEBI is considering revising short-selling regulations to expand access, remove disclosure norms, and streamline penalties.

Background

• SEBI initially banned short selling in 2001.
• In July 2007, SEBI issued guidelines allowing institutional investors to engage in short selling.
• In 2008, both retail & institutional investors were permitted to engage in short selling, 7 yrs after the ban.

Short Selling

• It allows investors to sell stocks without owning them, aiming to profit from a decline in stock prices.
• Current Restrictions: SEBI bans naked short-selling and permits it only for stocks in the Futures & Options (F&O) segment.

Types of Short Selling

Covered Short Selling

• The seller borrows shares to ensure delivery at settlement.
• Permitted in India under regulatory conditions.

Naked Short Selling

• The seller does not borrow shares before selling.
• In times of panic, more investors could sell without ensuring delivery, further pushing stock prices down.
• Illegal in India due to its potential to destabilise the market.

SEBI’s Proposed Short Selling Reforms

• Expanded Short Selling Access: SEBI plans to allow short selling in all stocks except the trade-to-trade (T2T) segment, widening market participation beyond F&O stocks.
• Removal of Disclosure Norms: Institutional investors may no longer need to disclose upfront short sales, and retail investors may be exempt from end-of-day reporting due to improved clearing systems.
• Direct Payout Impact: SEBI’s shift to direct payout may delay stock crediting, affecting buy-today-sell-tomorrow (BTST) strategies.
• Redefining Short Sales: Stocks bought in previous settlements but not yet credited to demat accounts may not be classified as short sales.
• Penalty Adjustments: Stock exchange-imposed penalties may be removed, with enforcement limited to clearing corporations to prevent double penalties.

Rationale for the Changes

• Enhanced Market Efficiency: Eliminating outdated disclosure norms simplifies compliance and increases trading efficiency.
• Level Playing Field: Removing the need for real-time access to clients’ demat accounts prevents disadvantages for non-depository brokers.
• Better Clearing & Settlement: The Securities Lending and Borrowing Mechanism (SLB) introduced in 2007 has improved market infrastructure, reducing the need for strict short-sale disclosures.

{Prelims – Festivals} Unique Holi Celebrations Across India

• Context (IE): Holi, the festival of colours, is celebrated uniquely across different regions of India, blending mythology, local customs, and cultural influences.

Devotional and Processional Celebrations

• Dola Jatra (Odisha) & Doul Yatra (Assam): Devotional celebrations honouring Lord Jagannath (Dolagobinda) and Lord Krishna. Odisha marks the festival with gulal while Assam’s Satras of Barpeta conducts grand processions around the sacred fire.
• Phoolon Ki Holi (Vrindavan, Uttar Pradesh): A flower-based Holi at the Banke Bihari Temple, where petals replace colours.
• Basanta Utsav (Shantiniketan, West Bengal): Introduced by Rabindranath Tagore, this celebration emphasises art and culture.
• Rang Panchami (Maharashtra & Madhya Pradesh): Celebrated five days after Holi, symbolising the triumph over negative traits.

Martial and Royal Holi Celebrations

• Holla Mohalla (Punjab): Established by Guru Gobind Singh, this Sikh festival showcases martial arts, sword fighting, horse riding, and mock battles.
• Royal Holi (Udaipur, Rajasthan): A grand celebration reflecting Rajasthan’s regal heritage. The Jagdish Temple hosts spectacular processions, folk performances, and bonfire rituals.

Folk and Playful Holi Traditions

• Lathmar Holi (Barsana & Nandgaon, Uttar Pradesh): Women playfully hit men with sticks (lathis) in a re-enactment of Lord Krishna teasing Radha and her friends.
• Phaguwa (Bihar): Marking the arrival of spring and harvest, Phaguwa begins with Holika Dahan on Phalgun Purnima. Dhulendi features vibrant colour play, folk songs, and energetic dances.
• Yaosang (Manipur): Begins with hut-burning akin to Holika Dahan. Children seek donations, Thabal Chongba (moonlit folk dance) is a major highlight.
• Ukuli (Kerala): Celebrated among the Kudumbi and Konkani communities. Instead of synthetic colours, turmeric water is used, with temple processions and folk songs enhancing the experience.