Current Affairs – September 20, 2024

{GS1 – A&C – Sites} Harappan civilisation

Context (TH): In 1924, John Marshall, then-Director General of the ASI, announced the discovery of the “civilisation of the Indus Valley” in “The Illustrated London News”.

The Harappan civilisation spread across modern Pakistan, northwest India, and Afghanistan, with key sites like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Rakhigarhi, and Dholavira.

Characteristics

Urban Planning: Harappans designed well-organized cities with grid layouts, advanced drainage systems, and standardised bricks.
Craftsmanship: They produced intricate seals, pottery, and jewellery, notably unique steatite seals with animal motifs and undeciphered script.
Trade Networks: The civilisation engaged in extensive trade, as evidenced by artefacts made of lapis lazuli and carnelian from distant regions.

Enigmas

Undeciphered Language: The Indus script has 400-600 symbols and remains undeciphered due to the absence of bilingual inscriptions.
Spiritual Practices: Understanding of Harappan religious beliefs is limited. Seals show possible deities, but the lack of temples renders much uncertain.
Causes of Collapse: The decline of the Harappan civilisation around 1900 BCE is debated, with unclear factors including climate change, tectonic activity, resource overexploitation, and invasions.
Extent of Trade: Evidence shows trade with Mesopotamia and other regions, but the details of commodities exchanged and their impact on Harappan society remain unclear.

Significance

Filling Historical Gaps: The discovery of the Harappan civilisation extended the timeline of settled life in South Asia by over 3,000 years, reshaping historical narratives about urbanisation.
Cultural and Economic Insights: The Harappans were skilled artisans in bead-making, pottery, and metallurgy, enhancing their economic strength and cultural identity.
Influence on Subsequent Civilizations: The Harappan civilisation influenced later South Asian cultures through its urban practices, agricultural techniques, and possibly religious beliefs.
Sustainability Practices: The Harappans showcased advanced water management with drainage systems and likely rainwater harvesting, highlighting sustainable agricultural practices.
Trade with West Asia: Evidence shows Harappans had maritime trade links with Mesopotamia and the Arabian Peninsula, indicating advanced navigation skills.

{GS2 – MoM – Initiative} PMU for mining

Context (IE): The Ministry of Mines will establish a Project Monitoring Unit (PMU) to oversee the operationalisation of about 500 major mineral and coal mines auctioned since 2015.

Challenges

Slow Pace of Operations: Since introducing the auction regime in 2015, only about 50 out of 404 auctioned non-coal mineral blocks have become operational.
Low Investment in Exploration: India spends just 1% ($150 million) of the global budget on mineral exploration, compared to Canada ($2.7 billion) and Australia ($2.3 billion).
Regulatory Hurdles: Mines often require multiple statutory clearances (nearly 20) from various central and state authorities before operations commence, complicating and prolonging the process.
High Costs and Bidding Competition: The auction process can lead to aggressive bidding, resulting in high operational costs that make it difficult for smaller companies to sustain operations.
State Government Involvement: Mining regulation is primarily a state subject, and varying levels of commitment and efficiency among state governments can hinder the timely operationalisation of mines.

Way Forward

Streamlining Regulatory Processes: Simplifying the clearance process and creating a centralised system can reduce delays and minimise bureaucratic hurdles.
Enhanced Project Monitoring: Implementing a Project Monitoring Unit (PMU) can provide continuous oversight of auctioned mines, ensuring timely operationalisation and addressing issues proactively.
Investment in Exploration: Investing in mineral exploration in high-potential areas can uncover valuable resources, and encouraging private sector participation through licenses can enhance efforts.
Adopting Advanced Technologies: Automation, artificial intelligence (AI), and real-time data monitoring can improve operational efficiency and decision-making.
Encouraging State Reforms: Collaborating with state governments on mining reforms can streamline operations. A State Mining Index can foster competition to enhance processes.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – Elections} One Nation, One Election (ONOE) **

Context (HT): One nation, one election (ONOE) refers to holding simultaneous elections across country.

This means that:
- Lok Sabha (LS) and all state assemblies (SLA) elections across India will be held simultaneously.
- Voters will vote for LS and the state assemblies’ elections on a single day, simultaneously (or in a phased manner, as the case may be).

Present Status of Elections in India

Currently, elections to the state assemblies and the LS are held separately, i.e., after the incumbent government’s five-year term ends or when it is dissolved for various reasons.

History of Simultaneous Elections in India

Lok Sabha and state legislatures went to polls together in 1952, 1957, 1962 and 1967. The synchronised cycle was first broken in Kerala in July 1959, when the Centre imposed the President’s rule.
The premature dissolution of some SLAs in 1968 and 1969 again disrupted the cycle. At present, SLA elections in Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Arunachal Pradesh, and Sikkim are held together with LS polls.

Arguments in Favour of Simultaneous Elections

Reduces enormous costs involved in separate elections.
Boosts voter turnout as it will be more convenient for them to cast votes simultaneously.
Helps ruling parties to focus on governance instead of being constantly in election mode.
Increases efficiency in administration as administrative duties are affected by elections.
Reduces the negative impact on governance due to the Model Code of Conduct.

Arguments Against Simultaneous Elections

Against multi-tiered governance system: Elections for different levels allow voters to hold their representatives accountable for their specific grievances.
Reduce the government’s accountability to the people, as elections will occur once every five years.
Regional parties may not compete with national parties in terms of election expenditure and election strategy. It contradicts India’s federal nature.
Complications would arise:
- If any of the governments were to collapse before completing its term.
- If the Parliament dissolves before its five-year term.

Proposed two bills

First Bill

This includes holding simultaneous Lok Sabha and Assembly elections.
Constitutional Amendment: According to the Kovind panel, this bill would require a “special majority” in both the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. This means that the bill would need to be passed by two-thirds of the members present and voting in each house.
No Ratification Required: This bill would not require ratification by the state assemblies. This is a departure from the usual procedure for constitutional amendments, which typically require the approval of at least half of the states.

Second Bill

This bill seeks to mandate that local body elections are held within 100 days, ensuring timely elections and preventing delays.
Constitutional Amendment: Like the first bill, it requires a “special majority” in both the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
State Approval: Unlike the first bill, this requires ratification by more than half of India’s states, emphasising the significance of local self-governance and state involvement in local election matters.

{GS2 – Vulnerable Sections – Children} NPS Vatsalya Yojana *

Context (PIB): Union Finance Minister. launched the NPS Vatsalya Yojana.

Aim: A new pension scheme for minors aimed at promoting early saving habits among children.
It allows parents to open pension accounts for children aged 0 to 18 years. Parents can contribute a minimum of ₹1,000 per month, with no upper limit on contributions.
Once the child reaches 18, the account can be converted into a regular NPS or non-NPS account.

Withdrawal Rules

Lock-in Period: 3-year lock-in from account opening.
Partial Withdrawals: After lock-in, parents can withdraw up to 25% for specific purposes (education, medical treatment, disability) with a max of three withdrawals.
Withdrawal at 18: Converts to a regular NPS account. If the corpus exceeds ₹2.5 lakh, 80% must be used to purchase an annuity; 20% can be withdrawn. If ≤ ₹2.5 lakh, the full amount can be withdrawn.
In Case of Death: Full corpus returned to the guardian if the child dies. A new guardian can be registered if a parent dies; legal guardianship applies if both parents die.

Read more > New Pension Scheme(NPS).

{GS3 – Agri – Fertilisers} Decontrolling Urea

Context (FE): With the government plans to promote natural farming, enhance pulses production, and prioritise climate-resilient crops, there is a need to reform the fertiliser sector, especially urea.

Use of Urea in Agriculture: Statistics

Urea accounts for 56% of all fertilisers and nearly 80% of all the nitrogenous fertilisers used.
The ratio of actual nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) fertiliser applications in 2022-23 was 11.8:4.6:1 against the recommended 4:2:1.

Read in detail about Fertiliser Subsidy.

Concerns with over-usage of Urea

Low Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE): NUE is only 35% in India (>50% in North America, and approx. 80% in European countries); the rest is lost to the environment.
Nitrate pollution: The cost of water pollution due to urea in India is about $30 billion yearly, more than the turnover of the urea industry.
Emission of GHGs: For every one tonne of urea produced and used in agriculture, five tonnes of CO2 equivalent GHGs are emitted.
- Currently, urea accounts for 4.3% of India’s GHG emissions and 22% of the country’s agricultural GHG emissions.
Fiscal burden: Urea subsidy (85-90% of the cost of production) has skyrocketed from less than Rs 500 Cr (1980-81) to Rs 168,692 Cr (2022-23). Further, in 2022-23, 84% of urea was produced from imported natural gas, and about 21% of total consumption was imported urea.

Way Forward: Adopting Green Urea Mission

Green Urea Mission, integrated with National Green Hydrogen Mission, should be launched to transition the urea manufacturing sector to green urea (produced from green hydrogen & renewable energy).
The mission should have a 30:30:30 target for 2050: increasing the area under non-chemical farming to 30%, improving NUE by 30%, and reducing the proportion of urea in nitrogenous fertilisers by 30%.

Benefits of transition to Green Urea

Eliminate imports, reduce subsidies by 65%, and reduce GHG emissions by over 60%.
The average levelised cost of green urea between 2025-50 would be approximately $475/tonne, compared to $540/tonne for grey urea produced from natural gas.
Water and air pollution will be significantly mitigated, and land degradation will be reversed.
It will drive growth in the two emerging industrial sectors: green hydrogen and carbon capture and utilisation. The monetary value of these benefits is about $1 trillion in the next 25 years.

Also read Nutrient Based Subsidy, Nano Urea.

{GS3 – DM – Floods} Urban Flood Management **

Context (IE): Indian cities are becoming increasingly vulnerable to floods due to climate change and inadequate urban planning, accounting for 47% of all weather-related disasters from 1995 to 2015.

Urban Flooding

Urban flooding occurs when rainfall or stormwater exceeds the capacity of city drainage systems, leading to water accumulation on streets and buildings.

Recent Incidents of Urban Flooding in India

Urban flooding in India has become a critical concern, with cities like Mumbai experiencing severe inundation during the 2005 deluge, which caused over 1,000 fatalities and significant economic losses.
Similarly, Bengaluru faced catastrophic flooding in 2021, where heavy rains led to waterlogged streets and disrupted essential services, highlighting the city’s inadequate drainage systems.
The Chennai floods of 2015 resulted from heavy monsoon rains overwhelming drainage systems, leading to widespread inundation, significant property damage, and the displacement of thousands.

Causes

Inadequate Drainage Systems: Many cities, such as Delhi and Bengaluru, have insufficient drainage infrastructure that cannot cope with heavy rainfall.
Urbanisation and Impermeable Surfaces: Rapid development will lead to a 58 per cent increase in impermeable surfaces in Bengaluru from 2017 to 2025, reducing natural water absorption.
Poor Spatial Planning: 40% of India’s capital cities lack active spatial master plans. Delhi and Bengaluru have delayed implementing their 2041 plans, allowing unregulated development.
Environmental Degradation: Developing sensitive zones like wetlands diminishes natural flood mitigation, increasing flooding risks.
Fragmented Civic Services: Multiple agencies managing flood control in cities lead to inefficient coordination and response during flooding events.
Heavy Rainfall and Climate Change: Extreme precipitation in the Indian subcontinent is projected to increase by 20 per cent by 2030, resulting in more severe flooding.

Impacts

Loss of Life: Incidents like the tragic deaths of three UPSC aspirants in Delhi in July 2024 highlight the human cost of inadequate flood management.
Economic Losses: Flooding can lead to significant economic impacts, such as the estimated losses exceeding $1 billion from the 2005 Mumbai floods.
Displacement of Residents: Frequent floods displace thousands, as seen in Chennai, where vulnerable communities are often forced into temporary shelters.
Damage to Infrastructure: Floodwaters damage roads and public utilities, with Bengaluru frequently overwhelmed by heavy rains, leading to extensive infrastructure damage.
Public Health Risks: Stagnant floodwaters increase the risk of diseases like dengue and malaria due to mosquito breeding.

Way Forward

Integrated Infrastructure Development: Adopt blue-green-grey infrastructure, like green roofs and permeable pavements, to enhance water absorption and reduce runoff.
Active Spatial Planning: Finalize and implement master plans in cities like Delhi and Bengaluru to regulate development in flood-prone areas.
Strengthening Citizen Participation: Establish ward committees to empower local engagement in governance and disaster management, as seen during the COVID-19 pandemic in Karnataka.
Decentralizing Governance: Recognize cities as distinct governance units to enhance local autonomy and prioritise flood resilience.
Enhancing Coordination Among Agencies: Streamline responsibilities among civic agencies in Bengaluru to improve efficiency and coordination in disaster response.

Read more > Floods in India

{GS3 – IE – Banking} US Fed Rate cut implications on India

Context (IE): The United States Federal Reserve decided to cut interest rates by 50 basis points (bps).

Implications of US Fed Rate Cut on India

Impact on Rupee: A Fed rate cut weakens the U.S. dollar as lower interest rates reduce demand for dollar-denominated assets. The rupee may strengthen against the dollar, reducing depreciation pressure.
Higher Foreign Investment Inflows: A lower U.S. interest rate reduces the attractiveness of U.S. assets, encouraging foreign capital inflows in India to seek higher returns.
Impact on trade: The US Fed rate cut is positive for Indian imports (which will be cheaper now due to an appreciation bias in the Indian rupee) but is strongly negative for Indian exports.

{GS3 – IE – Securities} Sovereign Wealth Fund

Context (LM): The government has initiated preliminary discussions to examine the viability of establishing India’s own sovereign wealth fund (SWF) with a likely corpus of Rs 5,00,000 crore.

The fund will comprise new and existing shares of PSUs and borrowings against shares.

What is a Sovereign Wealth Fund?

An SWF is a government-owned investment fund comprising funds or surpluses created by that entity to meet desired allocation outcomes.

Idea of SWF in India: Evolution

The idea of SWF was first discussed during 2007-08 when capital inflows exceeded $108 billion in a single year but waned after the Global Financial Crisis.
In 2010-11, the Planning Commission revived the idea of setting up a $10 billion non-commodity SWF to draw upon a part of the country’s ‘surplus’ foreign exchange reserves.
India has a structure similar to SWF, i.e. National Investment and Infrastructure Fund.

Arguments against SWF for India

SWFs are for countries with mineral wealth or running trade and budget surpluses. However, India runs persistent current account deficits and a sizeable fiscal deficit.
It could further increase the fiscal deficit due to borrowing. Since India’s domestic markets are deep, SWF is hardly needed. Concerns related to its governance, structure, investment goals and policies.

Arguments in support of SWF for India

It can be key in maximising social, political, commercial and economic benefits, not just financial returns.
It can be used to make direct investments in entities with specialised knowledge in ‘disruptive’ fields such as quantum computing, GenAI, telecom, space-tech, and Greentech.

Credits: Live Mint

It can increase India’s global heft and help the country achieve deeper economic integration.
It can create and leverage opportunities to develop specific infrastructure projects of mutual interest to India and other countries, such as the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor, and invest in other vital projects overseas as part of India’s ‘act-east’ policy.
It can help address the issue of resource dependence and diversification of economic risk.
- E.g., Chinese dominance creates a risk of economic coercion, and its monopolistic practices limit space for new entrants, while the US and EU promote localisation and friend-shoring.

{GS3 – IE – Taxes} Simplifying GST

Context (IE): The GST was implemented in India in 2017 to streamline indirect taxation. Seven years later, stakeholders question whether the system can be simplified further.

Read more > What is GST?

Complications in GST

Multiplicity of Tax Slabs: The GST structure includes five slabs, which leads to confusion among consumers and businesses.
Classification Disputes: Businesses often face disputes regarding classifying their products for taxation purposes. For example, Vadilal Industries had a case where parathas attracted 18% GST while chapatis were taxed at 5%, leading to significant confusion.
Inconsistent Rates for Similar Products: Different tax rates for similar items complicate compliance and pricing strategies. For example, Shampoos and body washes were taxed at 28%, whereas soaps were at 18%, creating inconsistency in the market.
Bundled Services and Composite Supplies: Bundling products and services complicates GST calculations, as tax rates can vary based on how items are packaged together.

Revenue Concerns

Impact of Rate Changes: Changes to GST slabs could significantly affect revenue, as about 70% of collections come from the 18% slab. In FY 2022-23, monthly GST collections averaged ₹1.8 lakh crore, with a 1% reduction slab potentially causing a loss of over ₹3,000 crore annually.
Historical Context: The weighted average GST rate has declined, raising concerns about revenue neutrality. The Reserve Bank of India reported a drop from 14.4% in May 2017 to around 11.6% by September 2019, sparking debates on sustaining revenue without compromising services.
State Reactions: Southern states have expressed a need for a larger share of GST revenues, complicating rate changes. In 2023 GST Council meetings, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka officials highlighted their revenue needs, resisting proposals that could reduce overall collections.

Recent Developments

GST Council’s Efforts: Continuous clarifications and adjustments to the GST structure have been made.
Current Focus: Stakeholders are considering adjusting health and life insurance rates, with a review set to report in October.
Proposal for Slab Reduction: The need to compress existing tax slabs into three or four categories is being discussed, but some states prefer maintaining the status quo.

Way Forward

Flat Rate Structure: Considering a flat GST rate with no exemptions could simplify the system. Countries like New Zealand have successfully implemented flat rates.
Merging Tax Rates: Combining rates for confectionery items could simplify taxation for products.
Industry-Specific Committees: To address unique challenges and provide tailored solutions
Centralized Audits: A centralised audit system can streamline compliance and reduce disputes.
Technology: Leveraging technology can further streamline compliance processes.
Regular Review and Adjustment of Rates: Establishing a framework for periodic review of GST rates ensures they remain relevant and fair.
Encouraging Stakeholder Engagement: Increasing dialogue between the government and businesses can lead to more informed reform decisions.

{GS3 – S&T – AI} UN Advisory Body Recommendations on Governing AI

Context (IE): The UN advisory body makes seven recommendations for governing AI.

Recommendations made

Establishment of a panel to provide impartial and reliable scientific knowledge about AI and address information asymmetries between AI labs and the rest of the world.
New policy dialogue on AI governance and creating an AI standards exchange.
Global AI capacity development network to boost governance capacities.
Global AI fund to address gaps in capacity and collaboration.
Global AI data framework to ensure transparency and accountability.
AI office to support and coordinate the implementation of above mentioned proposals.

Read more about Regulating AI, Europe’s AI Convention.

{Prelims – Envi – Species} Fig orchards (Ficus carica)

Context (DTE): False promises in contract farming led to cultivators destroying their fig orchards.

Soil: They prefer well-drained, loamy soil with a pH of 7-8 but can tolerate a variety of soil types.
Uses: Figs can be eaten fresh, dried, or processed into jams, juices, and other products.
Pollination: are generally self-pollinating, but some varieties like Smyrna figs require pollination by fig wasps or hand pollination for optimal fruit production and quality.

{Prelims – Festivals} Karam Tree Festival (Karma/Karam Parv)

Context (IE): Munda, Ho, Oraon, Baiga, Kharia, and Santhal tribes celebrated the Karam Parv in Jharkhand, West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Assam, and Odisha by the.

Celebrated on the Ekadashi tithi (eleventh day) of the lunar fortnight in the month of Bhado/ Bhadra, which corresponds to August-September in the Gregorian calendar.

Karam Tree (Haldina cordifolia)

Haldina cordifolia is a deciduous tree with a large crown. It is native to regions across India, including the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, and some parts of Southeast Asia.
The tree has a massive root system in proportion to its size, which makes it very resistant to drought.
The plant is harvested from the wild for its useful timber (used to produce combs, window frames, furniture, bobbins, boxes, piano keys, etc) and local medicinal use.
The tree tree branches symbolise fertility and prosperity. Karam Parv is a tribute to this.

{Prelims – In News} Rapa Nui civilisation and Easter Island

Context (TH): A study on the Rapa Nui people of Easter Island has refuted the “ecocide” theory.

Rapa Nui(Easter Island)

It is famous for its moai statues, carved from volcanic tuff and transported across the island to be placed on stone platforms called Ahu.
Its first human inhabitants are believed to have arrived between 700 and 1200 CE, likely from other Polynesian islands. They were known for advanced craftsmanship and societal organisation.
Location: Southeasternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle in Oceania.
Origin: Volcanic with three extinct volcanoes — Terevaka, Poike, and Rano Kau.
Climate: Subtropical, with mild temperatures and moderate yearly rainfall.

Moai Statues

These are iconic monolithic human figures carved by the Rapa Nui people on Easter Island.

Source: uoregon

These represent the deified ancestors of the Rapa Nui people. Most moai face inland, gazing over their clan lands, symbolising protection and watching over the people.

{Prelims – PIN World – Asia} Hezbollah’s Exploding Pagers

Context (TH): Lebanon witnessed explosions involving handheld pagers used by Hezbollah members.

Also known as a beeper, it is a compact, portable device used primarily for receiving and occasionally sending short messages or alerts.

Source: Arab News

Pagers receive messages via radio frequencies from a base station or central dispatch. These messages can be numeric or alphanumeric and are displayed to the user.
Some advanced pagers allow users to send and receive messages.
Its range depends on the frequency band used and the coverage of the paging network.

Lebanon: A Overview

Lebanon

Location: Western Asia, the second smallest country in continental Asia.
Bordering nations: Syria to the north and east, Israel to the south. Cyprus lies in the west across the Mediterranean Sea. It is part of the Levant region in the Middle East. Beirut is the capital of Lebanon.
There is a disputed area called Shebaa Farms with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights.

{Prelims – PIN} Meenakshisundaram Pillai

Context (TH): Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai (1815 –1876) was an outstanding Tamil scholar. He was born in Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu.

Credits: Telibrary

The celebrated Tamil scholar U. V. Swaminatha Iyer, known for his discovery of the Sangam classics, became his student at 17. He compiled Pilla’s biography in Tamil, which was translated into English by Sridharam K. Guruswamy. as “A Poet’s Poet“.

Literary contributions

He was hailed as ‘Pillai Tamil Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai’ as he sang a lot of Pillai Tamil texts.
Pillai is said to have composed 90 Sthalapuranas (history of ancient temples) about various temples and imparted puranams to his pupils.
He is remembered for contributing to Tamil studies and Saiva Agamas (Rules of Saivites).

{Prelims – S&T – Space} Porphyrion

Context (TH): Astronomers have discovered two massive energy jets, Porphyrion, from a supermassive black hole 7.5 billion light-years away. Porphyrion extends about 23 million light-years, approximately 140 times the diameter of the Milky Way galaxy.

Key findings

Record Size: Jets surpass the previous record by 30%, detected using the LOFAR radio telescope network.
Composition: Jets are high-energy particles (electrons, positrons) and magnetic fields moving at near-light speed, fueled by continuous matter inflow.
Cosmic Impact: Jets output energy equal to trillions of stars, influencing star formation, planet habitability, and cosmic energy distribution.
Astrophysical Implications: The discovery shows that black hole jets’ influence extends beyond galaxies, suggesting that more such structures exist.

How these Jets are Formed

Emerges on falling of material into the black hole on interacting with strong magnetic fields.
These magnetic fields help launch and shape the jets, which can travel vast distances into space. They are powered by energy from the black hole and its surrounding accretion disc.