Current Affairs – May 22, 2025

{GS2 – IR – Pakistan} Mohmand Dam

Context (IE): China has significantly ramped up construction on Pakistan’s Mohmand Dam, a flagship hydropower project, days after India suspended the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT).

About the Mohmand Dam Project

It is located on the Swat river in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

The Swat River originates from the Hindu Kush mountains in northern Pakistan and flows through the Swat Valley in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. It is a tributary of the Kabul River, which eventually joins the Indus River. The river is vital for irrigation, hydroelectric power generation, and supporting local livelihoods. It is also prone to seasonal flooding during the monsoon.

Height: 213 meters; Storage capacity: 1.239 million acre-feet.

Key objectives:
- Generate 800 MW of hydropower.
- Supply 300 million gallons of drinking water daily to Peshawar.
- Flood control and irrigation of approximately 16,700 acres.
Construction started in 2019, with an accelerated timeline aiming for completion before 2026
It is part of China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), a part of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

Geopolitical Implications of Mohmand Dam for India

China’s Support to Pakistan: Fast-tracking the dam reflects China’s continued political and strategic backing of Pakistan amid heightened India-Pakistan tensions.
China’s Strategic Expansion: CPEC enhances China’s geopolitical and economic foothold in South Asia, challenging India’s traditional regional dominance.
Water Security Challenges: China’s upstream control over key transboundary rivers like the Brahmaputra raises fears of “water weaponisation” and manipulation of shared water resources.
Complications in India-Pakistan Water Relations: The dam adds complexity to water-sharing disputes on the Indus basin, especially after India suspends of the IWT, increasing risks of conflict.
Risks to Regional Stability: Heightened water disputes exacerbate geopolitical tensions, threatening peace and security in South Asia.

Also Read > China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) , Indus Waters Treaty (IWT).

{GS2 – Polity – IC – Judiciary} Judicial Practice Mandate Reinstated by SC

Context (IE): SC reinstated the rule mandating 3 years of minimum legal practice for eligibility in judicial services exams.

Historical Context and Evolution

Law Commission Recommendation (1958): 14^th Law Commission Report proposed 3-5 years of legal practice for civil judge aspirants to ensure better preparedness.
SC Observation (1993): 3 years of Bar experience is essential for effective judicial functioning.
Shetty Commission Reforms (2002): Recommended abolishing the practice requirement to attract fresh graduates; SC accepted the change.
Current Reinstatement (2025): SC reversed the 2002 stance citing inefficiency of fresh recruits lacking practical exposure.

SC’s Key Directives and Reasoning

Mandatory Legal Practice: Minimum 3 years of court practice required for appearing in judicial services exams (civil judge – junior division).
Certification Mechanism: Experience to be certified by a lawyer with at least 10 years of Bar experience.
Definition of Experience: Work as a law clerk will also be counted toward the 3-year requirement.
Pre-Service Training: 1-year mandatory judicial training before a new recruit begins presiding in court.
Practical Exposure is Non-Negotiable: Academic knowledge and training cannot substitute real-time courtroom dynamics and legal decision-making.
Implementation Clarity: Ongoing/notified recruitment processes will continue under existing rules.

Constitutional and Institutional Provisions

Article 234 (Appointment Mechanism): Governor appoints subordinate judiciary personnel after consultation with State PSC and High Court.
Article 235 (Administrative Control): High Courts have control over district and subordinate courts, reinforcing their oversight in judicial appointments.

Criticisms and Concerns Raised

Economic Accessibility: Law graduates from disadvantaged backgrounds may find it hard to sustain themselves on low stipends during the practice period (Rs. 15,000–20,000/month typical).
Gender Equity Issues: Career breaks and economic hurdles may reduce participation of women, who currently form 38% of the district judiciary (India Justice Report 2022).
Unpredictable Exam Cycles: Many states do not conduct judicial exams regularly, creating long waiting periods post-eligibility.
Top Talent Deterrent: Students from top law schools may opt for corporate roles due to better pay and clearer career pathways, undermining judiciary talent pool.

Way Forward

Balancing Quality and Inclusivity: While the move aims to ensure judicial maturity, it must be balanced with mechanisms that prevent exclusion of capable but underprivileged aspirants.
Focus on Systemic Improvements: Building a judicial ecosystem that nurtures talent through training and accessibility, rather than filtering it through rigid experience barriers.

Proposed Alternative Reforms

Enhanced Training Models: Prolong pre-service training to two years with mentorship, simulations and practical engagement.
Dual-Track Entry: One route for experienced lawyers, another for fresh graduates with intensive training.
Structural Reforms: Shift from rote-based assessments to scenario-driven testing and judgment writing to evaluate judicial aptitude. Recruitment processes, exam schedules and support systems need overhaul to retain and develop competent future judges.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – Judiciary} Presumption of Constitutionality **

Context (TH): Petitioners contested the Supreme Court’s observation that a parliamentary law like the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025 carries a presumption of constitutionality.

What is Presumption of Constitutionality?

It is the legal principle that the judiciary should presume statutes enacted by the legislature to be constitutional, unless the law is clearly unconstitutional or a fundamental right is implicated.
The presumption of constitutionality has its origins in common law and has been influenced by judicial practices in other democratic countries, particularly the United States.
In India, this principle has been shaped by the constitutional framework and judicial pronouncements.

Key Judicial Pronouncements

State of Bihar vs. Kameshwar Singh (1952): The Supreme Court (SC) established the principle that legislation is presumed to be constitutional, and the burden of proof lies on the challenger.
Charan Lal Sahu vs. Union of India (1990): The SC reiterated that the presumption of constitutionality applies unless the statute is shown to be manifestly arbitrary or violates fundamental rights.
Nagaraj vs. Union of India (2006): The SC held that while examining the constitutionality of a statute, courts should presume that the legislature understands and correctly appreciates the needs of its people.
- The court also emphasized that the presumption of constitutionality is not absolute and can be rebutted if the law is found to be unconstitutional.

Significance

Respect for Legislative Authority: It ensures that the legislative process is respected, recognizing that elected representatives, accountable to the public, are best positioned to understand and address societal needs through legislation.
Stability in the Legal System: Fosters stability and predictability in the legal system, as laws remain effective and enforceable until they are conclusively declared unconstitutional by the judiciary.
Judicial Restraint: It upholds the democratic ethos by preventing undue judicial interference in legislative matters, thereby maintaining a delicate balance between legislature and the judiciary.

Concerns

Excessive judicial deference to legislative actions can lead to the under-protection of fundamental rights and a potential abdication of the judiciary’s role as the guardian of the Constitution.
Inconsistencies in the application of this doctrine can create legal uncertainty and undermine the doctrine’s effectiveness.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – Judiciary} Veeraswami Case

Context (IE): The SC’s preference for in-house inquiries in Justice Verma case over criminal investigations has raised concerns about transparency and public trust. Unaccounted cash was found at the residence of Justice Yashwant Varma, who served at the Delhi HC and was later transferred to Allahabad HC.

Constitutional and In-House Mechanisms

Removal of Judges by Impeachment

SC and HC judges can only be removed through impeachment under Articles 124(4) and 217 of IC.
Impeachment requires a two-thirds majority in both Houses of Parliament.
No judge has been impeached in over 75 years, rendering this a weak accountability tool.

In-House Inquiry Mechanism

Not constitutionally mandated, evolved through judicial precedents (e.g., Ravichandran Iyer case).

The CJI forms a panel to examine complaints of judicial misconduct.
The panel can recommend withdrawal of judicial work, voluntary resignation, or referral to the President but cannot enforce removal or initiate criminal prosecution.
Proceedings are confidential, leading to concerns about transparency and diminished public trust.

Veeraswami Judgment (1991): Judicial Independence vs. Accountability

Background: Justice K. Veeraswami, then Chief Justice of Madras HC, was accused of possessing disproportionate assets. The CBI filed an FIR, which was challenged and reached the Supreme Court.
Legal Questions?
- Are judges “public servants” under the Prevention of Corruption Act (PCA)?
- Who has the authority to sanction the prosecution of sitting judges?
Supreme Court Verdict (3:2 majority): Judges are public servants under the PCA.
- Only the Chief Justice of India can sanction prosecution or FIRs against sitting judges, not the President or executive branch.
- The ruling aims to protect judicial independence by limiting executive interference.
Impact: Created a narrow, CJI-controlled gateway for prosecuting judges.
- While safeguarding judicial independence, it contributed to opacity and limited accountability.
- The provision is rarely invoked, causing most cases to remain unresolved.

Subsequent Developments

In 2019, CJI Ranjan Gogoi allowed the CBI to register an FIR against Justice S.N. Shukla of the Allahabad HC. CJI Dipak Misra had earlier recommended impeachment, but no parliamentary action followed.
Justice C.S. Karnan’s 2017 imprisonment by the Supreme Court was for contempt of court, not under corruption laws or the PCA.

Also Read > Prevention of Corruption Act (PCA).

Context (TH | WHO): WHO member states unanimously adopted a long-negotiated global pandemic agreement aimed at avoiding the chaos seen during COVID-19 at the WHO annual assembly in Geneva.
The WHO Pandemic Agreement is the second international legal pact under Article 19 of the WHO Constitution, after the 2003 Framework Convention on Tobacco Control.

Namibia led by shaping equitable provisions, with its health minister chairing the adoption committee.

Core Objectives

Global Solidarity: Enhance cooperation to prevent, prepare for & respond to pandemics collectively.
Equity in Access: Ensure fair & timely distribution of vaccines/medicines/diagnostics during pandemics.
Shared Responsibility of Nations: To view pandemic response as a joint responsibility beyond borders.

Key Provisions

PABS System: A Pathogen Access and Benefit Sharing (PABS) system will be established to ensure rapid sharing of pathogens & fair distribution of benefits; details to be finalized at next World Health Assembly.
Equitable Access: Pharma companies in PABS system to allocate 20% of their real-time production of vaccines/therapeutics/diagnostics to WHO for equitable distribution, prioritising developing countries.
Global Logistics Network: A Global Supply Chain and Logistics Network (GSCL) will be created to ensure timely and fair delivery of pandemic-related health products.
Financial Support: A Coordinating Financial Mechanism will be set up to fund pandemic preparedness and response efforts globally.
Non-binding Nature: The treaty is legally non-enforceable, with no penalties for non-compliance, similar to many international agreements.

Mechanisms of Implementation

Voluntary Commitments: Implementation rests on national goodwill and peer pressure, not coercion.
WHO Oversight: WHO will act as the coordinating body for sample sharing and distribution logistics.
Global Health Governance: Reinforces WHO’s role as the central body for pandemic planning and coordination.

Concerns and Limitations

No Enforcement Mechanism: Countries can ignore provisions without consequence.
Voluntary Participation: Major powers may opt-out, citing concern about global buy-in & effectiveness.
Dependency on WHO Capacity: Success hinges on WHO’s ability to coordinate logistics and secure sufficient product pledges from wealthier countries.
US Absence: The United States, despite being WHO’s largest traditional donor, did not participate in final negotiations, following its earlier withdrawal during the Trump administration.

Also refer to Implications of having a Pandemic Agreement.

Context (AV): India officially received WHO Certification for Elimination of Trachoma as a Public Health Problem at the 78^th World Health Assembly in Geneva.

It is the third country in WHO South-East Asia Region, after Nepal and Myanmar, to eliminate trachoma.

About Trachoma

It is a contagious bacterial eye disease (a neglected tropical disease) caused by Chlamydia trachomatis infection, leading to visual impairment and blindness.
Transmission: Spread through direct contact (contaminated hands, clothing, bedding), eye-seeking flies that have come into contact with discharge from the eyes/nose of an infected person.
Risk Groups: Preschool children (primary reservoir) & women (4x higher risk) due to caregiving exposure.
Environmental Risk Factors: Poor sanitation, lack of water access, crowded living, and poor hygiene.
Symptoms and Impact
- Early Stage: Redness, eye pain, discharge, and photophobia.
- Advanced Stage: Trachomatous trichiasis (inward-growing eyelashes), corneal scarring and irreversible blindness.

Global Burden and WHO Status

Endemic in 38 countries; affects 1.9 million people globally with visual impairment or blindness.
WHO has validated 21 countries, including India, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Iran, Morocco and Vietnam, for eliminating trachoma as a public health problem.
- Recent new entries: Papua New Guinea and Mauritania.

India’s National Strategy and Interventions

Led by National Programme for Control of Blindness and Visual Impairment under Ministry of Health.
Trachoma elimination declared in October 2024, WHO certification awarded in May 2025.
Surveillance since 2019 via WHO-specified formats; National Trachomatous Trichiasis Survey conducted in 200 districts (2021-2024).

SAFE Strategy

S – Surgery: For trichiasis correction to prevent blindness.
A – Antibiotics: Mass drug administration to eliminate infection in affected regions.
F – Facial cleanliness: Hygiene promotion campaigns, especially in children.
E – Environmental improvement: Enhanced access to water, sanitation and improved living conditions.

{GS3 – S&T – BioTech} Neurotrophin Peptidomimetic Drugs

Context (PIB): Scientists at the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IASST), have highlighted the therapeutic potential of neurotrophin peptidomimetic drugs in treating neurodegenerative diseases.

About Neurotrophin Peptidomimetic Drugs

Neurotrophins like Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) promote neuron growth, survival, and synaptic plasticity but have drawbacks: poor blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration, short half-life, and immunogenicity.
Peptidomimetics are synthetic molecules that mimic neurotrophins, overcoming these limitations by:
- Enhancing Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) penetration.
- Improving stability and bioavailability.
- Enabling targeted delivery to neurons, reducing side effects.
These drugs mimic key neurotrophin structures to bind receptors such as TrkB, TrkC, and p75NTR.
Activation of these receptors stimulates neurogenesis, neuroprotection, and synaptic plasticity, vital for neuronal health.
Potential applications include slowing progression and improving symptoms of Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Huntington’s diseases.

Neurodegenerative disorders

Characterized by progressive loss of neurons in the brain and spinal cord.
Common diseases: Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD).
Causes: Ageing, genetic mutations, abnormal protein accumulation (amyloid-beta, tau, alpha-synuclein), oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, environmental toxins, and neuroinflammation.
Challenges: Difficult early diagnosis, limited neuron regeneration, BBB restricts effective drug delivery.
Current treatments mainly manage symptoms; no definitive cures exist.

{GS3 – S&T – Bodies} Metre Convention

Context (PIB): The Department of Consumer Affairs commemorated World Metrology Day 2025, marking the 150^th anniversary of the historic Metre Convention signed in Paris on 20^th May 1875.

Every year on 20 May, World Metrology Day is celebrated to highlight the importance of measurement science for business, trade, and sustainable development.
Also known as the Treaty of the Metre, it established a framework for global collaboration in the science of measurement (metrology).
Members: It has now 64 members and 37 associate states. India became a member in 1957.
Purpose: To ensure uniformity of measurements across the world for trade, science, and industry.
- Initially, the Convention focused on the units of mass (kilogram) and length (metre). In 1921, its scope was extended to cover all physical measurements, leading to the development of the International System of Units (SI) in 1960.
The Metre Convention established a permanent organizational structure for member governments to act in common accord on all matters relating to units of measurement.

Oranisations Established Under Metre Convention

International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)

Headquartered in Sèvres, France, the BIPM is responsible for defining the SI. It works under the authority of the CGPM and the supervision of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM).
The International prototype of kilogram (IPK) is kept at the BIPM, Paris and serves as the international standard of kilogram.

General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM)

CGPM is the highest international body of the world for accurate and precise measurements. It comprises 60 countries including India and 42 Associate Members.
It meets periodically (at least every six years) to make decisions regarding the international measurement system and the BIPM’s mandate and budget.

International Committee for Weights and Measures

CIPM is composed of 18 scientists elected by the conference, meets annually to monitor worldwide uniformity in units of measure.
The principal task of the CIPM is to promote world-wide uniformity in units of measurement and it does this by direct action or by submitting draft resolutions.

{GS3 – S&T – Defence} Golden Dome *

Context (IT | IE): US President Trump unveiled the ‘Golden Dome’ missile defence shield.

About Golden Dome

Echoes Ronald Reagan’s 1980s “Star Wars” project, an earlier, unrealised space-based missile defence vision hindered by limited technology.
Builds on Cold War-era concepts of orbital weaponry once pursued by US, Soviet Union & Nazi Germany.
Administered jointly with Pentagon & private partners including SpaceX.
Strategic Aim: Designed to protect the US from Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBMs), hypersonic glide vehicles, AI drones and cruise missiles using next-gen integrated defence tech.
Modeled after Israel’s Iron Dome but vastly expanded to include land, sea and space-based components.
Space-Based Defence: Will feature both interceptor and surveillance satellites to detect and neutralize threats soon after launch.
System of Systems: Includes autonomous yet connected sensors, tracking tools, interceptors and command-control modules sharing real-time data.
High-Tech Innovation: Pioneers orbital interception, addresses modern threats like hypersonic and AI-enabled weapons which evade traditional systems.
Initial roll-out planned across Alaska, Florida, Georgia and Indiana with operations targeted for 2029.

Concerns

Outer Space Treaty, 1966: Critics argue Golden Dome may violate international norms against placing weapons in orbit or turning space into a military arena.
Russia and China: Both have condemned the initiative as destabilising and a potential trigger for militarization of outer space.

Iron Dome vs Golden Dome

Iron Dome: Israel’s ground-based, short-range missile defence relying on radar and Tamir interceptors; ideal for localized threats.
Golden Dome: US-scale system with space-enabled global coverage to tackle long-range, high-speed and high-altitude threats like ICBMs from Russia or China.

Existing Defence Systems

System	Country	Specifications
Iron Dome	Israel	Short-range aerial defence
David’s Sling, Arrow-2/3	Israel	Medium to long-range missile interceptors
S-400 Triumph	Russia	Long-range multi-target system
THAAD	USA	High-altitude missile interception
HQ-9	China	Modeled on Russia’s S-300, 125 km range

{GS3 – S&T – Space} Jarosite *

Context (TH): Jarosite, a mineral found on Mars, can act as a natural clock for dating events up to 25,000 years old. It was first discovered on Mars by NASA’s Opportunity rover, indicating past acidic, water-based weathering on the planet.

Credit: TH

About Jarosite

Yellow-brown mineral composed of potassium, iron, and sulphate.
It forms in arid, saline, and oxidized environments on Earth, such as acidic mine drainage sites.
Researchers are investigating jarosite’s potential to record geological events on Mars through luminescence — light emitted when minerals release energy stored from natural radiation over time.
Six jarosite vein samples were collected from Kachchh, Gujarat, which was chosen for its dry, salty terrain, similar to that of Mars.

Significance

It can record radiation exposure equivalent to approximately 25,000 years under Mars’ natural radiation levels, making it a reliable natural clock.
Due to its abundance and durability, jarosite offers a promising method for future Mars missions to date recent geological events such as dust storms, ancient floods, and volcanic ash deposits.
This dating capability helps scientists understand Mars’ recent climate and geological history, providing insights into its habitability.

{Prelims – PIN} Legacy of Jayant Narlikar

Context (ET | IE): Eminent astrophysicist Dr. Jayant Vishnu Narlikar passed away in Pune at age 87.

Early Life and Academic Journey

Born in 1938 in Kolhapur, Maharashtra, into a scholarly family; father being a noted mathematician.
Completed B.Sc. from Banaras Hindu University in 1957. Studied at University of Cambridge; became a Wrangler and Tyson Medallist in Mathematical Tripos.
Mentored by Sir Fred Hoyle during doctoral research.

Pioneering Scientific Contributions

Steady State Theory

Proposed in 1948 by Fred Hoyle, Hermann Bondi and Thomas Gold, the steady state theory suggests that the universe has no beginning or end and has always existed in a constant state.
Expanding Universe with Constant Density: It accepts that the universe is expanding, but claims it maintains a constant average density through the continuous creation of new matter.
Contrast with Big Bang: Unlike Big Bang theory, which posits a single explosive origin, the steady state theory denies any singular creation event, proposing instead a universe that looks the same at all times.
Hoyle–Narlikar Theory of Gravity: Developed by Fred Hoyle and Jayant Narlikar, this theory integrated Mach’s principle with general relativity and supported the steady state model by explaining how newly created matter could fit into gravitational frameworks.
- Narlikar’s Contribution: Jayant Narlikar modified Einstein’s equations to accommodate matter creation and showed that the universe could expand while retaining constant density, analogous to compound interest growing capital while maintaining a steady growth rate.
- Challenge to Big Bang Evidence: Hoyle and Narlikar used data from radio astronomer Martin Ryle to argue that early observations supporting the Big Bang were inconclusive and could be explained within the steady state framework.

Decline of the Theory

The discovery of Cosmic Microwave Background radiation (CMB) in 1965 & evidence of evolving galaxies strongly supported the Big Bang model, leading to the decline of steady state theory by the 1980s.
Enduring Legacy: Though no longer mainstream, the mathematical tools & conceptual ideas developed by Hoyle & Narlikar remain influential in cosmology & continue to inspire alternative models of universe.

Institutional Leadership

Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR): Joined in 1972, led the Theoretical Astrophysics Group until 1989, raising its international profile.
IUCAA Founder: Established the Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA) in 1988 in Pune; served as founding director till 2003.
- Developed IUCAA into a globally recognised hub for astrophysics research and education; continued as Emeritus Professor post-retirement.
Leadership in International Scientific Bodies: President of the Cosmology Commission, International Astronomical Union (1994–1997).
Space Research (1999–2003): Led an experiment to collect microorganisms from the upper atmosphere (up to 41 km altitude).

Awards and Honours

Padma Bhushan (1965): Awarded at age 26 for early contributions to science.
UNESCO Kalinga Award (1996): Honoured for outstanding contributions to science popularisation.
Padma Vibhushan (2004): India’s second-highest civilian honour for lifelong scientific achievement.
Maharashtra Bhushan (2011): State’s highest civilian recognition.
TWAS Award (2012): Honoured by Third World Academy of Sciences for establishing a top-tier research institution.
Sahitya Akademi Award for his Marathi autobiography in 2014, underlining his role as a science communicator in regional literature.
Fellowships: Elected Fellow of Royal Astronomical Society (London) and TWAS.