Current Affairs – June 03, 2025

{GS2 – MoE – Schemes} Unnat Bharat Abhiyan Completes 10 Years

• Context (IE): Unnat Bharat Abhiyan (UBA) completes 10 years.

What is Unnat Bharat Abhiyan?

• Unnat Bharat Abhiyan is a flagship program launched by the Ministry of Education in 2014. It was revamped and relaunched in 2018 with broader participation and clearer framework.
• It is a national program with the vision to involve the professional and other higher educational institutions (HEIs) of the country for the sustainable development of villages.
• Vision: Transformational change in rural development processes by leveraging knowledge institutions to help build the architecture of an Inclusive India and to have a paradigm shift in academic and research programs of the country.
• Mission: To enable HEIs to work with the people of rural India in identifying development challenges and evolving appropriate solutions for accelerating sustainable growth.
  • It also aims to create a virtuous cycle between society and an inclusive academic system by providing knowledge and practices for emerging professions and to upgrade the capabilities of both the public and the private sectors in responding to the development needs of rural India.

Objectives Of Unnat Bharat Abhiyan 2.0

• To engage the faculty and students of HEIs in understanding rural realities.
• To identify & select existing innovative technologies, enable customisation of technologies, or devise implementation methods for innovative solutions, as per the local needs.
• To leverage the knowledge base of the educational institutions for effective implementation of various government programmes.

Major Areas of Intervention

1. Human Development: Health, Education and culture, Values and perception development and Skills and entrepreneurship
2. Material (Economic) Development: Organic agriculture and cow-based economy, water management & conservation, Renewable energy sources, Artisans and rural industries & basic amenities, etc.

Implementation/Organisational Structure

• National Steering Committee: Constituted by Ministry of Education for guidance and monitoring of the program at national level and to provide direction and requisite thrust to the programme.
• National Executive Committee: To take policy-related decisions for Unnat Bharat Abhiyan.
• National Coordinating Institute (NCI): IIT Delhi. It is responsible for the effective execution and monitoring of the programme.
• National Subject Expert Advisory Committee: For better and effective interventions of technologies in the villages.
• Regional Coordinating Institutions (RCIs): To facilitate, guide & monitor the activities of participating institutions. 50 RCIs are identified on basis of their earlier experience and infrastructural competence etc.
  • RCIs will act as nodal centres for promoting & facilitating UBA network in their region.
• Participating Institutions (PIs): Any Higher Educational Institute willing to work with Unnat Bharat Abhiyan, can join the programme by applying online on UBA website.
  • It is mandatory to identify/select 5 villages in consultation with the district collectors.
  • Institutions are expected to do field studies, study the implementation of government schemes, and facilitate their better implementation so that they meet their objectives.

Significance

• Bridging Gap Between Academia & Rural India: UBA connects HEIs like IITs, and universities with villages, helping translate academic knowledge into practical solutions.
  • HEIs help build skills, foster entrepreneurship, support startups, & expand digital literacy across villages.
• Promotes Bottom-Up Approach: UBA encourages identification of local problems and community-driven solutions.
• Fosters Social Responsibility: By involving students in real-life challenges of rural India, UBA cultivates empathy, awareness, and civic responsibility.
• Sustainable and Inclusive Growth: UBA promotes eco-friendly practices, such as organic farming and renewable energy, which align with the goals of sustainable development.
• Innovation at the Grassroots: Through field visits & interaction with villagers, students are exposed to real-world constraints, pushing them to develop practical, low-cost, & scalable innovations.
• Strengthens Local Governance: Institutions work in partnership with Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and local bodies, strengthening decentralized governance.
• Reduces Rural-Urban Divide: By improving facilities and opportunities in rural areas like water, education, health, energy, UBA helps reduce the push factors for rural-to-urban migration.

Outcome of the Scheme

• Redefining Higher Education’s Role: Through sustained, meaningful engagement, the UBA is redefining higher education’s role in India. The programme urges academia to move beyond classrooms and labs, engaging directly with rural life through grounded, empathetic, and socially relevant research.
  • As of May 2025, 4,183 institutions are working with 19,783 villages across 35 states and UTs.
• Bottom-Up Development: The HEIs are working closely with gram sabhas, elected representatives, district officials, and governments. They are actively shaping Gram Panchayat Development Plans (GPDP) and driving meaningful change from the ground up.
• Solutions to Local Issues: Collaborative, community-driven initiatives blend scientific innovation with local wisdom, proving that real change grows from the ground up.
  • E.g, in Haridwar’s Gaindikhata cluster, IIT Delhi introduced lemongrass cultivation and set up an oil extraction unit, helping farmers earn Rs 8,000–10,000 per month during harvest.
  • In Manipur, the NIT developed a low-cost water purifier providing clean drinking water to over 2,000 villagers previously reliant on a contaminated pond.

{GS2 – MoRD – Schemes} NAKSHA Programme

• Context (PIB): Ministry of Rural Development, is set to launch the 2^nd phase of NAtional geospatial Knowledge-based land Survey of urban HAbitations (NAKSHA) capacity-building programme.

About the Programme

• Pilot City Survey Programme under the Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme.
• Integrates aerial & field survey with GIS technology to improve efficiency and accuracy in land mapping.
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Rural Development.
• Implementing Agency: Department of Land Resources (DoLR), in collaboration with Survey of India, National Informatics Centre Services Incorporated (NICSI), Madhya Pradesh State Electronics Development Corporation (MPSeDC), and five Centres of Excellence (CoEs).
• Technical Partner: Survey of India (responsible for aerial surveys & providing orthorectified imagery).
• Coverage: Implemented across 157 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in 27 States and 3 UTs.
• Eligibility Criteria for Cities: Area less than 35 square kms; and population less than 2 lakh.
• Funding: 100% Centrally funded.

Objectives

• Develop high-resolution, verifiable geospatial urban land records.
• Combine aerial and ground surveys with Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping for accuracy.
• Strengthen urban land governance and facilitate transparent property transactions.
• Support effective urban planning through reliable land data.

{GS2 – Polity – Bodies – Misc} Enforcement Directorate (ED)

• Context (IE): ED has recently faced SC criticism for overstepping constitutional federal boundaries.

About Enforcement Directorate

• The ED is a multi-disciplinary organisation mandated to investigate offences of money laundering and violations of foreign exchange laws.
• The Enforcement Directorate was established in the year 1956 as an ‘Enforcement Unit’ under the Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance.
• Later, in 1957, this Unit was renamed as ‘Enforcement Directorate’ & administrative control transferred to the Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance.
• Headquarters: New Delhi | Five regional offices located in Mumbai, Chennai, Chandigarh, Kolkata, and Delhi.
• Headed by: Director of Enforcement.

Laws under ED

Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), 2002

• Focuses on detecting, investigating, and prosecuting money laundering offenses.
• Empowers ED to confiscate proceeds of crime after conviction.
• Unique feature: Reversal of burden of proof—accused must prove the legitimacy of attached assets.

Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), 1999

• Governs foreign exchange violations post-FERA repeal.
• ED has quasi-judicial powers to impose penalties.
• Handles legacy FERA cases as well.

Fugitive Economic Offenders Act (FEOA), 2018

• Empowers ED to attach and confiscate properties of offenders who flee India to avoid prosecution.

Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act (COFEPOSA), 1974

• Allows ED to initiate preventive detention proceedings related to foreign exchange violations.

Powers of the ED

• Investigative Powers: Summon individuals, enforce attendance, and record statements valid as evidence.
• Conduct searches and seize property or documents linked to money laundering with justified reasons.
• Arrest and Detention: Authority to arrest suspects based on material evidence and written justification, with legal grounds communicated to the accused.
• Attachment and Confiscation of Assets: Temporarily attach properties suspected as crime proceeds for up to 180 days to prevent disposal. Confiscate assets permanently after conviction under PMLA.
• Quasi-Judicial Functions: Under FEMA, ED adjudicates foreign exchange violations & imposes penalties.

Supreme Court Observations on ED

• ED must respect the federal balance, avoiding interference in matters under state jurisdiction.
• Overreach can violate the Constitution’s federal structure, as seen in the TASMAC case (raids on Tamil Nadu’s state liquor corporation).
• Need for Cooperative Federalism: The central agency’s jurisdiction and powers must harmonize with state autonomy and avoid disruption of state functions.

Concerns

• Political Misuse Allegations: Accusations that ED targets political opponents or specific groups, affecting impartiality.
  • Use of powers under PMLA, including reversed burden of proof, potentially misused to stifle dissent.
• Low Conviction Rates: From 2014 to 2024, only 40 convictions out of 5,297 cases registered under PMLA. Raised questions about quality of investigation and prosecution.
• Due Process Concerns: ED’s extensive powers may impinge on civil liberties and fundamental rights (FRs) if safeguards are weak.
• Transparency and Accountability: Lack of clarity in case selection and investigation processes damages public trust.

Suggested Reforms

• Strengthen Judicial Oversight: Implement stricter judicial monitoring of investigations, arrests and asset attachments to prevent abuse.
• Ensure Due Process: Guarantee adherence to FRs and fair procedures, avoid political interference.
• Improve Investigation Quality: Make investigations more intelligence-driven and focus on securing convictions with strong evidence.
• Enhance Transparency: Clearly define case selection criteria and operational protocols, increase accountability.
• Capacity Building: Provide training and establish Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) to professionalize the agency.
• Need for Cooperative Federalism: The central agency’s jurisdiction and powers must harmonize with state autonomy and avoid disruption of state functions.

{GS3 – Envi – Degradation} Black Plastic

• Context (BI): Over 90% of food delivery containers in major Indian cities are made of black plastic.

Credit: BI, CNN

About Black Plastic

• Manufactured using recycled electronic waste (e-waste) like old computers, TVs, and appliances.
• This recycled plastic contains harmful substances such as Brominated flame and heavy metals like lead, cadmium, mercury, antimony, nickel, and chromium.

Risks associated with Black Plastic

• Health Risks: Toxic chemicals used can leach into food if used in packaging, causing health concerns. Can disrupt the endocrine system, cause reproductive problems, developmental issues, diabetes, cancer.
• Environmental Impact: Black plastic contains carbon black pigment, which absorbs infrared light, making it undetectable by conventional recycling technologies, thus ending up in landfills.
  • Like other plastics, it does not degrade easily causing microplastic pollution.

Black carbon is an airborne pollutant from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and biomass, contributing to air pollution and climate warming by absorbing sunlight. Carbon black is a manufactured material produced by the controlled burning of hydrocarbons and is used as a black pigment in products like plastics & tyres. While carbon black colours black plastics and may contain harmful chemicals, black carbon primarily impacts health and the environment through air pollution.

Also Read > Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

{GS3 – IE – Development} India Becomes the World’s 4^th Largest Economy

• Context (IE): India is likely to surpass Japan to become 4^th largest economy in 2025 after the U.S., China and Germany as per IMF’s World Economic Outlook report.

India’s Economic Growth Journey

• India’s nominal GDP is projected to rise to $4,187 billion, surpassing Japan’s estimated $4,186 billion. However, the per capita GDP remains low at USD 2,880, compared to Japan’s USD 33,900, highlighting India’s status as a low-middle-income economy.
• India is currently the fastest-growing major economy, projected to grow at over 6% annually for the next two years.
• As per IMF projections, India is poised to become the 3^rd largest economy by 2028, overtaking Germany, with a projected GDP of USD 5.58 trillion.

Key Determinants of India’s Economic Ascent

Expanding Domestic Consumption

• Private consumption accounts for nearly 60% of India’s GDP, especially growing in rural India.
• Urbanisation trends are accelerating, projected to reach 600 million by 2030 (UN). Rising middle class, changing lifestyles, and youth spending drive consumption-led growth.

Demographic Dividend

• India’s median age is 29 years – among the youngest globally, ensuring labour supply and economic productivity for decades.

The median age of a population is the age at which half of the population is older and half is younger.

Infrastructure Development & Digital Transformation

• Major investments in roads, railways, logistics, energy, and ports and Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) – includes Aadhaar, UPI, CoWIN.
• India Stack & Jan Dhan-Aadhaar-Mobile (JAM) trinity are models of financial and digital inclusion.

External and Global Realignment

• “China Plus One” strategy and Supply Chain Resilience Initiative driving FDI inflows. E.g. Apple, Samsung, and other MNCs are setting up manufacturing in India.
• India-Japan cooperation, strategic alliances with QUAD nations, add to attractiveness.

Reform-Driven Growth

• Goods and Services Tax (GST): Created a unified national market and tax compliance.
• Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC): Strengthened credit discipline.
• Corporate tax cuts (from 30% to 22% for existing companies, 15% for new manufacturers) have streamlined the business environment, boosting economic activity.

Challenges for India

Global Geopolitical Uncertainty

• Supply Chain Disruptions: Russia-Ukraine war and Red Sea shipping crisis have increased shipping costs by up to 300% on some routes, hurting trade flows.
• US-China Strategic Rivalry is disrupting global tech supply chains, especially semiconductors.
• Export Volatility: India’s export-led sectors (e.g., textiles, electronics) are vulnerable to global demand shocks and trade barriers.

Inflation and Price Volatility

• Headline vs Core Inflation: While CPI inflation eased to 4.8% in April 2025, services inflation remains stubborn (~6%) due to rising costs in education, health, and rent.
• Food and Fuel Pressures: Unseasonal rains and volatile global crude prices (~$80/barrel) continue to strain household budgets and monetary policy.
• Urban Cost of Living: Rising housing and transport costs affect urban middle class the most, limiting discretionary consumption.

Employment and Workforce Disruption

• Automation Impact: AI and robotics are replacing repetitive jobs, particularly in manufacturing and IT-BPO sectors. India must upskill 400 million workers by 2030 (NASSCOM) to remain globally competitive.
• Informal Sector Dominance: Still, over 80% of India’s workforce is informally employed, lacking job security, social security, and stable income.

Trade Deficit and Export Challenges

• Current Account Deficit: Narrowed to 1% of GDP in FY24–25, aided by services exports and remittances.
• Merchandise Export Weakness: Goods exports fell 4.6% YoY in FY25, due to weak demand from Europe and China.

Infrastructure and Investment Requirements

• Capex-to-GDP Ratio: Stands at 3.3% in FY25 – highest in a decade (Union Budget 2024–25).
• Green Infrastructure: More investment needed in solar, wind, battery storage to meet Net Zero by 2070 goals.
• Urban Needs: Projects like Smart Cities Mission and PM Gati Shakti need faster execution and private sector participation.

Way Forward

• Diversify Trade Partnerships: Reduce over-reliance on China, EU, and US by expanding Free Trade Agreements and trade ties with emerging markets in Africa, ASEAN, and Latin America to tap new consumer bases and strategic resources.
• Strengthen Manufacturing Ecosystem: Focus on cutting-edge sectors like semiconductors, EVs, drones, and green hydrogen, while empowering MSMEs with better credit, skills, and technology to integrate them into global value chains.
• Accelerate Digital and Financial Inclusion: Expand 5G and AI infrastructure beyond metros, leverage digital platforms like UPI and ONDC for public services and entrepreneurship, and bolster cybersecurity with robust data protection and governance frameworks.
• Ensure Sustainable and Inclusive Growth: Promote climate-smart agriculture, address wealth inequality and regional disparities through targeted schemes, and invest in human capital via education reforms, increased R&D spending, and support for startups and innovation ecosystems.

{GS3 – S&T – AI} ‘Bharat Gen’ launched at the “BharatGen Summit”

• Context (PIB): Union Minister for Science and Technology launched ‘Bharat Gen’, an AI-based multimodal Large Language Model (LLM) at the BharatGen Summit.

• ‘BharatGen Summit’ is India’s largest Generative Artificial Intelligence & LLM summit and hackathon.
• It brings together a consortium of leading academic institutions, with the objective of advancing generative AI technologies and an active AI ecosystem in the country specifically designed for the diverse and unique requirements of India.

About Bharat Gen

• ‘Bharat Gen’, is India’s 1^st of its kind, indigenously developed, Artificial Intelligence (AI) based, government-funded, Multimodal LLM designed for Indian languages.
• Developed under the National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS) and implemented through TIH Foundation for IoT and IoE at IIT Bombay.
• Aims to revolutionize AI development across India’s linguistic and cultural spectrum.
• Backed by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) and brings together a consortium of top academic institutions, experts, and innovators to lead AI research and application.

Key Features

• Bharat Data Sagar: A multilingual data repository reflecting India’s diversity supports AI with locally relevant datasets and data sovereignty.
  • The Bharat Gen platform supports 22 Indian languages to provide complete AI solutions tailored for India’s cultural and linguistic diversity.
• Data and Compute-Efficient Learning: BharatGen focuses on efficient AI models for Indian languages with limited digital presence, ensuring high performance with minimal data.
• Multimodal AI Models: BharatGen integrates text, speech, and images into AI models for inclusivity and robust solutions across Indian languages.
• Startup Ecosystem and Innovation: BharatGen supports the startup ecosystem with tools, mentorship, and collaboration, empowering entrepreneurs to create innovative AI applications for India.
• Academic Research and Industry Implementation: Combines academic research and industry expertise to innovate scalable AI through public-private partnerships, positioning India as a global leader across agriculture, education,and healthcare.
• Skilling and Capacity Building: BharatGen aims to strengthen India’s AI talent pool through fellowships, hackathons, and courses, positioning it as a global innovation hub.

What is AI-based Multimodal LLM?

• A multimodal Large Language Model (LLM) powered by AI is a highly advanced system that can understand and process various types of input, such as text, images, sound, and video.
• Unlike traditional language models that work only with text, multimodal models can combine different kinds of data.
  • E.g., they can look at an image & answer questions or watch a video & describe what’s happening.
• These systems are trained on huge and diverse datasets that include more than just written words, which helps them carry out complex tasks across formats.

{GS3 – S&T – Tech} Regulating India’s Virtual Digital Assets

• Context (TH): India’s Crypto Conundrum: India leads globally in grassroots adoption of Virtual Digital Assets. Yet, an ambiguous and restrictive regulatory approach contrasts sharply with this growth.

What is a Virtual Digital Asset (VDA)?

• Virtual Digital Asset (VDA) is a digitally stored, transferable, or tradable representation of value, not necessarily backed by any government or central authority.
• They leverage blockchain technology for security and transparency.

Types of VDAs

1. Cryptocurrencies are digital currencies secured through cryptographic methods, enabling secure & decentralised transactions. Used for making payments & acting as a store of value similar to digital gold. E.g. Bitcoin, Ethereum.
2. Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) are unique, non-interchangeable digital tokens that certify ownership of a specific asset or content. Used to represent digital ownership of items such as art, music, videos, or even virtual real estate, and are typically bought and sold using cryptocurrencies.
3. Other Digital Assets include tokenized forms of physical or intangible assets, such as real estate, commodities like gold, or digital representations of property rights and personal identities. These assets aim to increase liquidity, transparency, and security in ownership and transactions.

Status of VDAs in India: Timeline

• 2013: RBI first raised concerns about cryptocurrencies due to their decentralised, unauthorised nature.
• 2018: RBI banned financial institutions from dealing with crypto-related entities.
• 2020: Supreme Court overturned the RBI ban, allowing crypto activities to resume.
• 2022: Government imposed 1% TDS on VDA transactions above ₹10,000 and a 30% capital gains tax, without allowing loss offsets.
• 2023: VDAs were brought under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA).
• 2025: The Income Tax Bill, 2025, explicitly classified VDAs as property and capital assets, aligning with countries like the UK, US, and Australia.

Status of VDAs globally

• United States: VDAs taxed as property and Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) monitors crypto as securities.
• UK & Australia: Classified as property, taxed under capital gains rules.
• Global Consensus (IMF, FATF, FSB): Advocate for risk-based, internationally harmonized regulation relying on domestic, compliant intermediaries—Virtual Asset Service Providers (VASPs).

Significance of VDAs in India

• Economic Opportunity: Over $6.6 billion invested by Indian retail investors.
• Employment: Potential to create 800,000+ jobs by 2030.
• Developer Ecosystem: India has one of the fastest-growing blockchain developer communities globally.
• Technological Leadership: India’s participation in Web3 innovation can position it as a global digital powerhouse.
• Tax Revenue: Proper regulation could recover thousands of crores in lost revenue currently slipping offshore.

Challenges in India’s VDA Ecosystem

• Regulatory Ambiguity: No clear law governing VDAs, pushing VDA users to offshore, non-compliant platforms, eroding the country’s ability to mitigate risks presented by VDAs, as well as tax revenues.
• Over-Reliance on Taxation: Tax-heavy policies without protective or enabling regulation.
• Capital Controls Clash: India’s tight monetary controls don’t align well with decentralised digital assets.
• Ineffective Enforcement: URL blocking of foreign exchanges has been bypassed using VPNs, mirror sites, or by switching platforms.
• Security Risks: The $230 million cyberattack in 2024 underscored vulnerabilities in the sector.

Way Forward: Towards a Balanced and Future-Ready Framework

• Comprehensive Legislation: Move beyond taxation; enact laws that clearly define rights, obligations, and safeguards for VDA stakeholders.
• Enable VASPs: Encourage domestic platforms through licenses, regulatory sandboxes, and public-private collaboration.
• Investor Protection: Establish transparent disclosure norms, grievance redress mechanisms, and insurance requirements.
• Global Harmonisation: Align with international standards from bodies like FATF, IMF, and FSB to facilitate cross-border trade and avoid regulatory arbitrage.
• Digital Infrastructure: Strengthen India’s technological backbone, cybersecurity, and blockchain frameworks.
• Avoid Blanket Bans: Embrace innovation while regulating responsibly—bans push users to underground platforms, increasing risk and reducing oversight.

{Prelims – In News} Operation Spider’s Web

• Context (IE | IE | LM): Ukraine announced a successful covert operation named Operation Spider’s Web.

About the Operation Spider’s Web

• Conducted by: Ukrainian Security Service (SBU)
• Objective: Deep strike on Russian airbases to cripple strategic air power.
• Targeted Locations:
  • Belaya Air Base: Irkutsk, Southeastern Siberia.
  • Olenya Air Base: Murmansk, Northwestern Russia.
  • Dyagilevo Air Base: Ryazan, Western Russia.
  • Ivanovo Severny Air Base: Ivanovo, Western Russia.
  • Amur region, Far East Russia (claimed by Russian Defence Ministry)

Credit: IE

• Technology Used: 117 short-range First Person View (FPV) drones laden with explosives.
• Highlights rise of asymmetric drone warfare & the need for stronger surveillance and anti-drone systems.

First Person View (FPV) drones

• FPV Drones are small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) equipped with a forward-facing camera that streams live video to the operator, enabling precise real-time remote control.
• Key Features:
  • Small size and high mobility allow penetration deep into enemy territory while evading air defenses.
  • Operate within 2–5 km; autonomous navigation, obstacle avoidance, target recognition, & precision strikes without relying on GPS. Easily deployed by small teams for rapid, flexible missions.
  • Can carry explosives, sensors, or specialized equipment tailored to mission needs.
• Applications: Used for combat operations, surveillance, reconnaissance, search & rescue, & commercial filming.

Also Read > Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, Drones

{Prelims – In News} Stromatolites

• Context (IE): 600-million-year-old stromatolites have been discovered in Chambaghat, Solan, HP.

Credit: IE

What are Stromatolites?

• Stromatolites are organo-sedimentary structures formed from the entrapment of calcium carbonate precipitates by algae and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae).
• They are living fossils and the oldest living lifeforms on our planet. The oldest stromatolites are 3.6 billion years old and are found in Australia.

• Represent some of Earth’s earliest life forms, especially prominent during the Precambrian era (about 541 million years ago) before complex life evolved.
• Form in shallow marine settings, some also thrives in intertidal zones, freshwater ponds, and lagoons.
• Characterised by alternating light & dark bands; size can vary from few milimeters to meter; they typically appear flat, dome-shaped, or columnar.
• Living stromatolites are extremely rare, found only in select saline lakes and coastal lagoons, offering a glimpse into extremophile life.
• Played a key role in Great Oxygenation Event, altering Earth’s atmosphere by introducing oxygen.

Chambaghat’s stromatolites are embedded within the Krol Group’s limestone, shale, and sandstone, deposited under the ancient Tethys Sea. As the Indian tectonic plate drifted northward and collided with the Eurasian plate, these marine sediments were uplifted, forming the Himalayas at elevations of 5,000–6,000 feet.

Significance

• Key to reconstructing ancient ecosystems & understanding Earth’s early biosphere, atmosphere, and evolutionary history.
• Markers of continental drift and mountain-building.
• Living stromatolites are relevant to astrobiology & search for potential biosignatures on other planets.

Distribution of Stromatolites in India

• Sikkim: Buxa Formation, a declared Geoheritage site.
• Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh: Kapada Basin (Cuddapah Supergroup).
• Haryana: Morni Hills (dolomite formations).
• Uttar Pradesh: Chitrakoot (Vindhyan limestones).
• Uttarakhand: Mussoorie and Nainital (Krol Belt stromatolites).
• Rajasthan: Jaisalmer Fossil Park (Mesozoic stromatolites), Jhamarkotra and Zawar.
• Himachal Pradesh: Shali-Deoban (Krol Belt specimens).
• Karnataka: Bhima Basin (Precambrian stromatolites), Dharwar Supergroup (Neoarchean stromatolites over 2.6 billion years old).

Also Read,> Indian Rock System

{Prelims – PIN World – Europe} Birch Glacier Collapse

• Context (TH): Switzerland’s Birch Glacier in the Lötschental Valley catastrophically collapsed, triggering a massive landslide that buried much of an Alpine village.

Switzerland, a landlocked Alpine country, has the highest number of glaciers in Europe. It witnessed a 4% glacier volume loss in 2023, the second-largest annual decline after a 6% loss in 2022.

About Birch Glacier

• Located in the Lotschental Valley in the canton of Valais in Switzerland, near Bietschhorn Mountain in the Bernese Alps.
• Geographical features:
  • Part of the Swiss Alps, a segment of the greater Alpine Mountain System.
  • Positioned on steep glacial slopes with a steeper snout, increasing instability and sliding risk.
  • Classified as a valley glacier confined to a mountain valley.
• Feeds the Lonza River, a tributary of the Rhone Basin.
• Reasons for collapse: Cascading effects of heavy rockfall debris, unstable terrain, permafrost thawing, and rising temperatures linked to global warming.

Unlike most glaciers retreating due to climate change, Birch Glacier was advancing, primarily because of heavy rockfall debris accumulation from the mountain.

Swiss Alps

• Lie to the south of Swiss Plateau in Switzerland. Formed by the folding of the African and Eurasian plates. Features rugged peaks, deep valleys, and alpine meadows.
• Acts as a natural barrier between northern and southern Europe, with mountain passes historically enabling key trade routes (e.g., linking Italy to northern Europe).
• Major rivers like the Rhine and Rhone originate here.

Also Read > Alps

{Prelims – Sci – Bio – Diseases} Calcified Coronary Artery Disease

• Context (TH): Calcified coronary artery disease is an emerging health concern globally.

Credit: sd

About Calcified Coronary Artery Disease (cCAD)

• cCAD is the hardening of coronary arteries due to calcium buildup in plaques inside artery walls, which causes arteries to become stiff, narrow, and less flexible, reducing blood flow.
• Coronary artery calcification (CAC) occurs as intimal calcification in the artery’s inner layer (most common) and medial calcification in the middle layer, which mainly causes artery stiffness.

Coronary arteries are blood vessels supplying oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscles. Key arteries include the left anterior descending (LAD), left circumflex, and right coronary arteries.

• Process of Plaque hardening into Calcium:
  • Atherosclerosis is the process where fatty deposits (plaques) build up in the inner walls of arteries. These plaques contain cholesterol, inflammatory cells, and other substances.
  • Inflammation triggers calcium deposits as a healing response.
  • Calcium hardens the plaque → artery becomes stiff → cCAD
• Causes and Risk Factors:
  • Non-modifiable: Age, male gender, family history.
  • Modifiable: Diabetes, high blood pressure (hypertension), high LDL cholesterol, smoking, sedentary lifestyle, unhealthy diet, chronic kidney disease.
• Symptoms: Exertional chest pain (angina), breathlessness, fatigue, and palpitations. Rarely causes a heart attack unless nodular calcium is present.
• Prevention: Maintain consistently low LDL cholesterol over time (“LDL-C years” concept), control diabetes and hypertension, quit smoking, exercise regularly, and follow a healthy diet.

LDL-C Concept (LDL-C Years) refers to the cumulative exposure to bad cholesterol (LDL) over time. Higher and longer-lasting LDL-C levels increase risk of atherosclerosis & calcified coronary artery disease. Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) is a condition where the coronary arteries, which supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle, become narrowed or blocked due to the buildup of fatty deposits called plaques.

{Species – Amphibians – Misc} Shillong Cascade Frog (Amolops shilling)

• Context (TH): Scientists from the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) and their local collaborators have recorded a new species of frog named the Shillong cascade frog.

Credit: TH

• It is a species of cascade-dwelling frog of genus, Amolops. India currently has 20 recognised species of Amolops frogs, 16 of which have been described from within the country.
  • Nine of these have been recorded in the past two decades, emphasising the status of India’s northeastern region as a hotspot of amphibian diversity.
• It has been found within the urban landscape of Shillong, the capital city of Meghalaya.
• Habitat: Prefers splashing around in urban streams.
• Its closest relative is Amolops siju, discovered in 2023 in the dark depths of Siju Cave in South Garo Hills. The two species are genetically different enough by 2.0% to 3.4% to be classified separately..