Current Affairs – June 04, 2025

{GS1 – A&C – Sites} Kheer Bhavani Temple

Context (TH): The Kheer Bhawani Festival (Mela) is a significant annual religious gathering held at the Kheer Bhawani Temple in Jammu and Kashmir.

Credit: PD

Location: Tulmulla village, Ganderbal district, Jammu & Kashmir.
Dedicated to Goddess Ragnya Devi (an incarnation of Durga), regarded as Kuldevi of Kashmiri Pandits.
Built atop a sacred septagonal spring (Syandh) that is believed to change colours, interpreted as omens—e.g., black indicating turmoil.
Reconstructed under Maharaja Ranbir Singh. Further developed by Maharaja Pratap Singh and Maharaja Hari Singh (early 20th century).
Features a fusion of a Devi idol and Shiv Linga, surrounded by chinar trees.
Historical references are present in Kalhana’s Rajtarangini, Bhrigu Samhita, & Abu’l-Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari.
Hosts the second-largest Hindu gathering in Kashmir after the Amarnath Yatra.

{GS1 – MIH – Personalities} R.P.G.V. Govindan Chettiyar

Context (TH): R.P.G.V. Govindan Chettiyar, an unsung freedom fighter from Tamil Nadu, has been recognized as part of India’s “Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav” celebrations.

About R.P.G.V. Govindan Chettiyar

Born on 27 July 1910, Chithode village, Erode Taluk (then in Coimbatore district), Tamil Nadu.
Died: 2 August 1993.
Affiliation: Indian National Congress.
Ardent advocate of Gandhian Principles.

Contribution to Freedom Struggle

Participated in the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–21) as a student.
In 1941, led a satyagraha near Chithode Mariamman Temple for the nation’s freedom.
In early 1941, he undertook a padyatra with K.S. Ramasamy to mobilise support for independence.
Actively took part in the Individual Satyagraha movement and was arrested & jailed for six months.
During the Quit India Movement, he went underground to continue his efforts against colonial rule.

Social Reforms

Advocated the use of Khadi to promote economic self-reliance.
Campaigned the cause of prohibition to combat social issues.
Opposed untouchability; worked for social unity and uplifting the downtrodden.
Promoted cottage industries to strengthen rural livelihoods and economic independence of the poor.

Post-Independence

Member of the Erode National Expansion Scheme Advisory Committee.
Led relief operations during the Bhavani River flood, organizing volunteers for support.

{GS1 – PI – Personalities} Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay

Context (IE): 2025 marks the 60^th years of the philosophy of Integral Humanism (Ekatm Manavvad), given by Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay.

Integral humanism was a set of concepts drafted by Upadhyaya as a political program and adopted in 1965 as the official doctrine of the Jan Sangh.

Credit: NDTV

Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay (1916–1968) was a prominent Indian philosopher, political thinker, economist, and organizational leader, best known for formulating the concept of “Integral Humanism”.
He was born on September 25, 1916, in the Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh.
On February 11, 1968, he died outside Mughalsarai railway station, now renamed Deendayal Nagar.

Major Contributions

Integral Humanism (Ekatma Manav Darshan)

Holistic Approach: He emphasized a holistic approach to human development, encompassing the four attributes of human existence – Body (Kama), Mind (Artha), Intellect (Dharma), and Soul (Moksha).
- Integral Humanism seeks balanced progress that nurtures both material and spiritual needs, ensuring harmony between individual and society.
Indigenous Economic Model: He argued for an indigenous economic model rooted in India’s cultural values, advocating for self-reliance (Swadeshi), economic decentralization, and the empowerment of local communities.
- The goal was to build a sustainable economy aligned with Indian ethos rather than blindly copying Western capitalist or socialist models.
Antyodaya: It meant “rise of the last person“, which emphasized the upliftment of the poorest and most marginalized sections of society. Welfare policies and development strategies should prioritize those who are most in need.
Cultural Harmony: Integral Humanism stressed cultural harmony, moral values, and discipline in public life. It called for morality in politics, the primacy of national-cultural values, and a people-centric development model, where human dignity and ethical governance are paramount.

Cultural Nationalism

He viewed culture as the very essence of nationalism, firmly rejecting the notion of multiculturalism.
He argued that “unless all people become part of the same cultural stream, national unity or integration is impossible.”

Politics

Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS): He played a crucial role in shaping the political landscape of India, particularly as a key leader of the BJS, the precursor to the modern-day Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).
Rashtriya Jana Sangh: In 1951, along with Dr Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya started the new party Rashtriya Jana Sangh.

Literary Contributions

He initiated the monthly magazine Rashtriya Dharma, which advocated nationalism.
Launched weekly publications, including Panchjanya and a daily called Swadesh.

Contrast with Nehruvian economic policies

Upadhyaya rejects Nehruvian economic policies and industrialization on the grounds that they were borrowed uncritically from the West, in disregard of the cultural and spiritual heritage of the country.
He argued for striking a balance between the Indian and Western thinking in view of the dynamic nature of the society and the cultural heritage of the country.

{GS2 – IR – Groupings} IATA’s 81^st Annual General Meeting

Context (PIB): Prime Minister addresses International Air Transport Association’s (IATA) 81^st Annual General Meeting and plenary Session of World Air Transport Summit (WATS).

IATA’s Annual General Meeting and World Air Transport Summit (WATS) took place on 1-3 June 2025 at the Bharat Mandapam in New Delhi, hosted by IndiGo.
- The last AGM in India was held 42 years ago in 1983.

About International Air Transport Association (IATA)

IATA is trade association for world’s airlines, representing over 350 airlines over 80% of global air traffic.
Formed in April 1945 in Havana, Cuba and is successor to the International Air Traffic Association.
Headquarters: Montreal, Canada with executive offices in Geneva, Switzerland.

India’s Aviation Sector

India has become the 3^rd largest domestic aviation market in the world.
- India’s airlines continue to achieve double-digit growth, with 240 million passengers flying annually surpassing the total population of most countries worldwide.
- By 2030, it is expected to reach 500 million passengers.
Air Travel: Under the UDAN scheme, over 15 million passengers have benefitted from affordable air travel, enabling many citizens to fly for the 1^st time.
Cargo Transport: Presently 3.5 million metric tons of cargo are transported by air annually in India and this volume is set to increase to 10 million metric tons by the end of this decade.
Infrastructure: The number of operational airports expanded to 162 from 74 in 2014.
Inclusive Model: India’s aviation sector is strengthened by its inclusive model, with over 15% of pilots in India are women, which is three times the global average.
- While the global average of women in cabin crew is around 70%, India’s figure stands at 86%.

Read More> India’s Aviation Sector

{GS2 – IR – India-USA} Strengthening U.S.-India Subsea Cable Agenda

Context (TH): India and the United States are focusing on strengthening subsea cable infrastructure to enhance regional digital resilience.
The TRUST Framework (Technology for Resilient, Open and Unified Security and Trust), successor to iCET, aims to promote trusted digital infrastructure, support subsea cable diversification and cybersecurity and recognize India as a regional digital security provider.

Why India-US collaboration matters?

Countering China’s Digital Expansion: China is expanding undersea cables via the Digital Silk Road, highlighting need for alternatives.
Regional Digital Resilience: E.g. In 2024, Houthi rebels damaged subsea cables in the Red Sea, forcing Indian operators to reroute traffic to other cable systems. Such disruption can lead to a breakdown in both domestic and international communications.

What are Subsea Cables?

Subsea cables are fibre-optic cables laid on the ocean floor, carrying over 95% of international internet traffic. They form the backbone of the global internet, enabling cloud services, digital trade, and international communications.
They connect internet service providers & telecom operators everywhere with those in other countries.

Importance of Subsea Cables

Critical Digital Infrastructure: Essential for digital connectivity and cloud services.
Geopolitical Leverage: Control over subsea cable routes is increasingly seen as a national security and strategic asset.
- China is expanding undersea cables via its Digital Silk Road, highlighting need for alternatives.
Digital Resilience: Enhances redundancy and reduces vulnerabilities to sabotage, cyberattacks, or natural disasters (e.g., Red Sea cable disruptions in 2024).

India’s Subsea Cable Landscape

India’s Geostrategic Advantage

Digital Economy growth: India’s bandwidth requirement is projected to grow at 38% between 2021-28, fuelled by rising consumption and data centre investments, making it a natural landing point for future global cable networks.
Geostrategic Location: Positioned between Europe, Southeast Asia, and Africa, India sits near key maritime choke points — the Strait of Hormuz, the Strait of Malacca and Bab-el-Mandeb making the country a natural hub for global cable networks.

The Shortcomings

Meagre Number: India hosts only 17 international subsea cables (Singapore – 26). 15 of 17 cables land in a 6-km stretch in Mumbai, creating vulnerability and regional bottlenecks.
Cumbersome Licensing Process: Requires 50+ clearances from multiple ministries.
No Domestic Repair Fleet: Dependent on foreign-flagged ships (from Dubai and Singapore), with 3–5 month delays for repairs due to slow customs, naval, and crew approvals.
Limited Cable Landing Locations: Cable landing stations are concentrated in 5 cities, i.e. Mumbai, Chennai, Kochi, Tuticorin, and Thiruvananthapuram poses single-point failure risk in the event of sabotage or natural disasters.

Cable landing stations are coastline facilities that connect subsea cables to terrestrial networks.

Credits: Money Control

Way Forward

Simplify licensing and approval processes for laying and maintaining cables.
Invest in domestic repair ships and cable depot infrastructure to reduce response times.
Diversify cable landing points across more coastal cities to reduce concentrated risk.

{GS2 – Polity – Laws} Centre’s new regulations for Ladakh

Context (IE): Centre has notified new regulations for Ladakh’s land, jobs and cultural preservation.

What are the New Regulations?

Ladakh Civil Services Decentralization and Recruitment (Amendment) Regulation, 2025

Introduces domicile-based recruitment for government jobs.
Domicile criteria:
- 15 years residence in Ladakh
- 7 years of schooling + passed Class 10 or 12 from Ladakh
- Children of Central Govt employees with 10+ years’ service in Ladakh
- Children/spouses of Ladakhi domiciles

Ladakh Civil Services Domicile Certificate Rules, 2025

Lays down procedure and documentation required to obtain domicile certificate.
Issuing authority: Tehsildar; Appellate authority: Deputy Commissioner.

Union Territory of Ladakh Reservation (Amendment) Regulation, 2025

Total reservation for SC/ST/OBC/Other Backward Groups: 85%. Excludes 10% EWS quota from cap.
Now applicable to professional institutes (engineering, medical colleges): New cap: 85% (early 50%)

Ladakh Official Languages Regulation, 2025

Recognizes English, Hindi, Urdu, Bhoti, Purgi as official languages.
Mandates institutional support for: Shina, Brokskat, Balti, Ladakhi.

Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Councils (Amendment) Regulation, 2025

Reserves 1/3rd of LAHDC seats for women, via rotational reservation.
LAHDCs remain administrative (not legislative) bodies.

Significance of the Regulations

First major region-specific administrative framework for Ladakh post-2019.
Addresses key demands from civil society groups like Leh Apex Body and Kargil Democratic Alliance.
Important step towards local job protection, cultural preservation, language recognition.

Limitations of the Regulations

No Constitutional Backing: Regulations are framed under Art 240 (are executive in nature, not constitutional). Thus, unlike sixth schedule, does not offer constitutional guarantee for tribal protections.
No land ownership safeguards: Absence of any restriction on land purchase by non-domiciles posing risk for Ladakh’s ecology due to Commercial tourism, Environmental impact, Resource exploitation.
Lack of legislative autonomy: Lack of legislative powers to Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Councils (LAHDCs). Demand remains for either Legislative Assembly or Inclusion under Sixth Schedule with Autonomous District Councils (ADCs).
Symbolic cultural recognition: Languages recognised, but no clear roadmap for use in education, governance, judiciary.

Also Read > Ladakh’s Demand for Inclusion in Sixth Schedule: Arguments in Favour and Against.

Context (IE): Government institutions across India are witnessing a sharp decline in student enrolment.

Factors Responsible

Shift towards private schools due to perceived better quality and English-medium instruction. This trend deepens the class-based divide and stigmatizes public schools as inferior.
- E.g. Andhra Pradesh has 73% government schools but only 46% student attendance; Telangana has 70% government schools but only 38% student attendance (UDISE+ 2022).
Inefficiency of Mid-day meal scheme: The scheme struggles with poor food quality, hygiene, & irregular delivery, impacting student retention with issues more acute in urban and semi-urban areas.
Teacher shortage: Over 50% of government teaching positions are vacant due to irregular recruitment and lack of incentives for rural postings.
- E.g. UDISE+ (2021-22) reports over 9 lakh teacher vacancies. 41% of primary schools operate with only one teacher (Economic Survey 2022-23).
Poor Infrastructure: Lack of basic facilities like functional toilets, libraries, and safe buildings.
- E.g. Only 33.9% schools have functional computers & 27.3% have usable internet (ASER Report 2023)
Outdated Syllabus & Medium of Instruction: Curriculum remains rote-based and not aligned with NEP 2020’s emphasis on experiential learning. Vernacular instruction in government schools vs. English in private schools fuels educational inequality.

Government Initiatives

Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA): Integrated scheme for school education. Focuses on teacher training, digital infrastructure, and improving learning outcomes.
Mid-Day Meal Scheme (PM POSHAN): Provides nutritional support to students. Aims to boost school attendance and reduce dropout rates. Revamped in 2021, but implementation gaps remain.
National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Emphasizes experiential learning, foundational literacy, and local language instruction. Promotes the use of digital tools and flexible curricula.
Strengthening DIETs & SCERTs: Enhances teacher training institutions. Aims at pedagogy reform and improving educational quality at the grassroots.
PM SHRI Schools: Establishes 14,500 model schools with modern facilities. Aligned with the NEP 2020 vision of quality education.
E-Vidya, Diksha Portal: Digital education platforms introduced during COVID-19. Expands access to online content, though rural digital divide remains a challenge.

Way Forward

Urgent Teacher Recruitment: Fill existing vacancies through time-bound recruitment. Use contractual and blended hiring models where required.
Revamp Infrastructure: Ensure toilets, classrooms, electricity, internet. Focus on PM SHRI Schools as demonstration models.
Upgrade Curriculum: Align textbooks with NEP 2020’s competency-based approach. Introduce English-medium sections gradually in govt schools.
Mid-Day Meal Reform: Local community monitoring, decentralised procurement. Include breakfast schemes and nutritional awareness.
Public Awareness: Restore trust in public education, highlight successful government school alumni.
Strengthen School Management Committees: Ensure community participation in school governance.
Digital Inclusion: Provide devices, training, & internet access for online/blended learning models.

{GS3 – DM – Floods} Urban Flooding

Context (IE): Indian cities are experiencing frequent urban flooding due to unplanned urbanisation.

Urban Drainage in India: Statistics

Urban drainage refers to the system of natural and man-made infrastructure—like stormwater drains, channels, and retention systems—used to collect, convey, and dispose of excess rainwater.

Over 70% of urban areas lack scientifically planned stormwater drains.
Mumbai has stormwater drains dating back to the 1860s, designed for 25 mm/hour rainfall, while the city frequently sees over 100 mm/hour. 80% of its natural water bodies have disappeared in last 40 years.
Delhi’s drainage systems follow 1976 norms, designed for 50 mm/day rainfall. In May 2025, the city received 185.9 mm in one day, more than 9 times the norm.
Bengaluru lacks a natural river system and has outdated, narrow drains. Over 65% of interlinked lakes (e.g., Bellandur) are now encroached and concretised, severely limiting water retention.

Causes of Urban Drainage Failure

Natural Causes

Intensifying Rainfall: Climate change is causing a sharp rise in short-duration, high-intensity rainstorms. E.g. In 2023, Delhi received 100 mm+ rainfall in less than an hour, overwhelming the city’s drainage.
Low-lying Terrain: Cities like Mumbai and Bengaluru are naturally prone to waterlogging due to their topography.

Man-made Issues

Unplanned Urbanisation: Rapid growth has led to the encroachment of floodplains, concretisation, and reduced soil permeability—increasing surface runoff.
Outdated Design Standards: Most urban drainage systems are built for a 1 in 2 year flood event, which is woefully inadequate for today’s rainfall patterns.
Illegal Constructions: Unauthorized structures over drains prevent access and hinder maintenance and desilting.
Sewage Infiltration: In many cities like Patna and Bhopal, stormwater drains are contaminated with sewage due to poor or non-existent separate sewerage lines.

Government Initiatives to Tackle Drainage Crisis

Manual on Stormwater Drainage Systems (2019): Recommends cities design drains for 1-in-5 or 1-in-10-year events rather than outdated 1-in-2 models, accounting for changing rainfall patterns due to climate change.
AMRUT 2.0 Scheme: Advocates for integrated stormwater networks, protection of water bodies, and emphasis on rainwater harvesting around them.
Jal Shakti Abhiyan & Atal Bhujal Yojana: Promote groundwater recharge using check dams and urban recharge pits, reducing surface runoff and improving stormwater absorption.
Model Building Bye Laws (MBBL), 2016: Rainwater harvesting is mandated for plots over 100 sq. meters, aiming to reduce runoff and improve aquifer recharge.
Amrit Sarovar Mission: Aims to rejuvenate urban waterbodies, improving their capacity to retain stormwater and act as natural buffers during heavy rainfall.
GIS-Based Drainage Mapping: Cities like Delhi are adopting simulation-based frameworks using GIS technology to dynamically redesign drainage systems based on real-time land use, population, and rainfall data.

Way Forward

Underground Storage Systems: Construct rainwater retention tanks under parks and public spaces to capture and slowly release stormwater.
Strict Enforcement of Building Codes: Ensure strict adherence to MBBL and zoning laws, especially in high-density urban areas.
Decentralised Drainage Solutions: Encourage rooftop gardens, bioswales, and permeable pavements to naturally manage runoff and reduce load on drainage systems.
Routine Desilting and Maintenance: Implement a strict maintenance regime, ensuring timely desilting and unclogging, especially for covered or encroached drains.
Community Awareness Campaigns: Conduct public outreach to reduce waste dumping in drains, encourage water conservation, and promote local-level solutions like harvesting.

{GS3 – Envi – Degradation} UV-328 and Other Persistent Organic Pollutants

Context (DTE): At 15^th Conference of the Parties (COP15) to Stockholm Convention in Geneva, parties decide to grant use of UV-328 in the aerospace and defence sector.

About UV-328

Used since the 1970s in paints and plastics, adhesives, sealants, cosmetics, sunscreens, and food contact materials as a UV absorber to prevent degradation and discolouration under sunlight.
Classified as a persistent organic pollutant (POP) due to its persistence, bioaccumulation, long-range environmental transport, and toxicity.
Harmful impacts: Known to damage the liver and endocrine system.

New Addition to Annex A under Stockholm Convention

Chlorpyrifos: Neurotoxic insecticide linked to developmental harm in children.
Long-chain perfluorocarboxylic acids (LC-PFCAs): Highly persistent “forever chemicals” used in cookware. Associated with cancer and environmental persistence.
Medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs): Industrial chemicals used to make plastic flexible and durable. Harmful to liver, kidneys, and thyroid.

Annexures under Stockholm Convention on POPs

Annex A: Chemicals listed here are to be eliminated (e.g., aldrin, dieldrin, UV-328, etc.).
Annex B: Chemicals subject to restriction (e.g., DDT — limited use for malaria control).
Annex C: Unintended by-products to be reduced or eliminated (e.g., dioxins, furans).

Also Read,> Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

{GS3 – S&T – BioTech} Reconsidering Ban On Sale Of Blended Mustard Oil

Context (TH): Experts suggests the sale of blended mustard oil should not be banned entirely.

Mustard Oil

Mustard oil is a vegetable oil extracted from clean and sound mustard seeds, which belong to species namely compestris, juncea or napus varieties of brassica.
It is rich in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, including omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, as well as vitamins and antioxidants.
Rapeseed-mustard oil is the 3^rd largest edible oil consumed in India.

Ban on Mustard Oil

FSSAI

In 2021, Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) prohibited the manufacturing and sale of blended mustard oil in India, effective from June 8, 2021.
As per Indian food safety laws, selling an edible oil mixed with another edible oil is permitted, provided the proportion of an oil blended with another oil is within 20%.

Supreme Court Ban on DMH-11

SC, in 2024, ruled against approval granted by the centre for the environmental release of India’s indigenously developed genetically modified (GM) mustard named Dhara Mustard Hybrid-11 (DMH-11) due to the insufficient assessment of the impact on human health of DMH-11.

Concerns about Mustard oil

Erucic Acid: The mustard oil extracted from the Indian mustard crop contains high levels of a unique fatty acid called erucic acid (40% to 54% of total fatty acid).
- This is significantly higher than the internationally accepted level of <5%.
Health Concerns: Lab experiments demonstrated that animals fed with high erucic acid-containing mustard oil suffered from heart diseases, retarded growth, premature tissue death, and adverse changes to the liver, kidney, skeletal muscle, and adrenal glands.
International Ban: Banned for edible use in the USA, EU, and Canada due to concerns over erucic acid.
Adulteration with artificial flavours and poisonous substances. Adulteration of mustard oil with argemone oil causes the disease Dropsy.
- FSSAI survey (2020) found that 24.21% of 4,461 edible oil samples collected did not meet the quality parameters criteria. Maximum adulteration & contamination was found in mustard oil.

Way Forward

Allow in Packaged Form: Instead of a ban, the sale of blended mustard oil can be allowed but in packaged/branded form with an explicit declaration regarding the oils that have been blended.
Prevent Adulteration: Implementation of the food safety and standards laws and strengthening of food safety infrastructure are also essential in preventing adulteration.
GM Mustard: The erucic acid content in Indian mustard oil can be reduced by cultivating the indigenous GM mustard crop DMH-11. It has a lower erucic acid content (30-35%) compared to the traditional Indian mustard crops (40-54%).
- As a result, the oil extracted from DMH–11 requires a lower quantity of other edible oils for blending to reduce erucic acid content.
Reduce Edible Oil Import: Cultivation of GM Mustard and allowing blending will reduce the imports of other edible oils.
- India is the world’s largest importer of edible oils. Its edible oil import bill is pegged at $20.56 billion (NITI Aayog).
There is no conclusive evidence of a health impacts on humans.

{Prelims – PIN World – Asia} Zangezur Corridor

Context (DT): The Zangezur Corridor, supported by Turkey and Azerbaijan, aims to establish a new trade link through Armenia that could bypass India’s Chabahar–Armenia–Black Sea route.

Zangezur corridor is a proposed land link connecting Azerbaijan’s mainland to its exclave Nakhchivan via Armenia’s Syunik region, ultimately connecting to Turkey through Kars.
Conceptualized after the 2020 Second Karabakh War ceasefire, with Armenia agreeing to unimpeded transit rights.
Proposed 43 km stretch through Armenia’s Syunik province, forming part of the larger Baku–Nakhchivan–Kars corridor.
Includes rail & road infrastructure, complementing the Baku–Tbilisi–Kars (BTK) route (connects Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey).
Reduces distance between Azerbaijan and Turkey by over 300 km, enabling faster cargo movement.
Integral to the Middle Corridor (Trans-Caspian International Transport Route), connecting China and Central Asia to Europe while bypassing Russia.

Implications for India

May undermine India’s multimodal Chabahar–Armenia–Georgia–Black Sea route by restricting Iran’s land access to Armenia.
If the corridor bypasses Armenian Control, it might adversely affect India’s connectivity and strategic interests in West Asia and the Caucasus.

In 2023, Azerbaijan and Iran agreed to develop the Aras Corridor— an alternative route to Nakhchivan via Iran’s East Azerbaijan province with bridges and rail links along the Aras River, providing Azerbaijan with a backup transit option if Armenia blocks the Zangezur Corridor..

{Prelims – PIN World – Europe} Mount Etna

Context (TH): Mount Etna erupted again, sending clouds of smoke and ash into the sky.

Mount Etna is an active stratovolcano located on the east coast of Sicily, the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, Italy.

As a stratovolcano, it is formed by thick, viscous lava that builds steep, conical slopes (about 60% of Earth’s volcanoes are stratovolcanoes).

It is Europe’s largest and most active volcano and the highest peak in Italy south of the Alps, standing at approximately 3,300 metres.
The volcano has five main summit craters, responsible for most eruptions, along with over 300 smaller vents scattered across its flanks.
Unlike many volcanoes that remain dormant for long periods, Etna is in a near-constant state of activity.
Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013.
Etna’s volcanic activity spans over 500,000 years, with at least 2,700 years of continuous documentation, making it the longest such volcanic record globally.
Notable summit eruptions occurred in 2006, 2007–08, twice in 2012, 2018, and 2021. Flank eruptions were recorded in 2001 (a 24-day eruption in July–August), 2002–03, 2004–05, and 2008–09.
The most recent eruptions occurred in July and August 2024, and again in June 2025.

Also Read,> Volcanism: Andesitic & Basaltic Lava, Distribution of Volcanoes, Volcanic Vortex Rings

{Prelims – Sci – Bio} Nanozyme to Prevent Excess Clotting

Context (TH): Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc.) have developed an artificial metal-based nanozyme to prevent abnormal blood clotting caused by pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE).

The nanomaterials mimic the activity of natural antioxidant enzymes, which scavenge reactive oxidative molecules.
- These nanozymes work by controlling ROS levels, thereby preventing the over-activation of platelets that leads to excess clot formation or thrombosis.
Under normal conditions, when a blood vessel is injured, specialized blood cells called platelets become activated and cluster at the site to form protective clots.
- This process, known as the blood clotting cascade or haemostasis, involves a complex series of protein interactions triggered by signals from physiological agonists like collagen and thrombin.
In abnormal conditions such as PTE or diseases like COVID-19, these signaling pathways can become dysregulated leading to increased oxidative stress and elevated levels of toxic Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), causing over-activation of platelets.
- Thus, excessive clot formation occurs within blood vessels, contributing to thrombosis.

Pulmonary Thromboembolism (PTE)

Pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE), also known as a pulmonary embolism, is a life-threatening condition where a blood clot (or other substance) blocks an artery in the lungs.
These clots usually originate in the legs and travel to the lungs, obstructing blood flow.

{Species – Reptiles – LC} Saltwater Crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus)

Context (TH): The Saltwater Crocodiles are the largest and most aggressive living reptile.

Credit: TH, IUCN

Locally known as “Saltie”.
Distribution: Found across India, Southeast Asia, and Northern Australia.
- In India, found in Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Bhitarkanika (Odisha), Sundarbans (West Bengal), and Muthupet Mangroves (Tamil Nadu).
Habitat: Found in rivers, estuaries, swamps and freshwater lakes. Adapted to both saltwater and freshwater environments.
Physical features: Have broad snout, strong jaw muscles, and rugged, scaly skin. Females are significantly smaller than males.
Behaviour: Capable of long-distance sea swimming. Use ambush tactics and tail propulsion to capture prey.
Diet: Carnivorous. Feeds on fish, crustaceans, birds, mammals, and occasionally livestock and humans.
Conservation Status: IUCN: Least Concern | WPA, 1972: Schedule I | CITES: Appendix I (except the populations of Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea, which are included in Appendix II).
Threats: Hunted for their skin and meat, habitat destruction & fragmentation, etc.