Current Affairs – February 16-17, 2025

{GS2 – Governance – Laws} Adultery: Legal Relevance

Context (IE): Adultery, decriminalized in 2018 is no longer a criminal offense for civilians, but remains relevant in divorce, maintenance cases, and within the armed forces, where it is still a punishable offense.

Adultery Decriminalized

The SC removed the provisions of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) and the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC), which considered adultery an offence.
- According to Section 497 of the IPC, a man had the right to initiate criminal proceedings against his wife’s lover.
- According to Section 198(2) of the CrPC, the husband alone could complain against adultery.

The dictionary definition of adultery is simply voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person, man or woman, and someone other than that person’s current spouse or partner.

Why Adultery Was Decriminalized

Gender Equality: The law was found discriminatory, treating women as property of their husbands.
Privacy and Autonomy: Marriage was regarded as a private matter where the state shouldn’t intervene.

Adultery

IPC Section 497: Adultery involved sexual intercourse with another person’s wife without consent, punishable with up to five years imprisonment.
Gender Bias: Only men could be prosecuted for adultery, and the act needed to involve a married woman without her husband’s consent.
Decriminalization: 2018 SC ruling declared adultery unconstitutional, striking down IPC Section 497, citing violation of equality and personal autonomy.
Impact: The ruling allowed adultery to remain as a moral wrong, but removed as a criminal offense.

Adultery in Civil Law

Ground for Divorce: Under Hindu Marriage Act (1955) and the Special Marriage Act (1954), adultery remains a ground for divorce.
Proof Requirement: Evidence of sexual intercourse is needed to prove adultery in civil cases, including divorce and maintenance.
Judicial Precedents: 1982 Delhi HC case have emphasized that partial penetration or lesser sexual acts do not constitute adultery.
Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS): The 2024 law replacing the IPC does not criminalize adultery, following the SC’s decriminalization ruling.

Adultery and Maintenance

Legal Framework: Section 125(4) of the CrPC denies maintenance to wives living in adultery.
MP HC Ruling: No evidence of sexual intercourse means no grounds for cancellation of maintenance.
Maintenance Rights: A wife is entitled to maintenance unless she engages in adultery, where proof of sexual intercourse is necessary.

Adultery in the Armed Forces

Service Laws: Army Act (1950), Navy Act (1957), and Air Force Act (1950) allow punishment for adultery under the concept of “unbecoming conduct.”
SC Ruling: SC upheld that the armed forces can continue disciplining personnel for adultery, as they are governed by specific service laws that differ from civilian provisions.

{GS2 – IR – India-US} India-US 123 Agreement

Context (IE): India plans legislative amendments and seeks a US exemption to deploy US-designed nuclear reactors and SMRs under the 2007 India-US 123 Civil Nuclear Agreement.

India-US 123 Civil Nuclear Agreement

Signed in 2007 to enable full civil nuclear energy cooperation between India and the US.
Ended a 30-year ban on nuclear trade imposed after India’s nuclear tests.
Facilitates access to US nuclear technology and fuel for peaceful purposes.
Requires separation of civil and military nuclear facilities, placing civil facilities under international safeguards.

Strategic Significance

Enhances energy security by providing access to advanced nuclear technology and reactors.
Strengthens India-US relations by deepening cooperation in energy and technology sectors.
Creates investment opportunities for US firms like Westinghouse, GE-Hitachi, and Holtec International in India’s nuclear industry.
Positions India as global leader in Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) for clean energy & tech exports.

Legislative Reforms Required in India

Atomic Energy Act, 1962

Proposed amendments to allow private sector participation in nuclear power.
Currently, only state-owned entities like NPCIL (Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd) operate nuclear plants.
Opening private sector involvement will boost investment and expedite nuclear projects.

Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA), 2010

Designed to compensate victims in case of a nuclear accident and allocate liability.
Foreign vendors hesitate to invest as the law channels liability to equipment suppliers.
Amendments needed to address supplier liability concerns and encourage foreign investments.

US Legislative Hurdle: ‘810’ Authorization

Part 810 of US Atomic Energy Act (1954) restricts US companies from manufacturing nuclear equipment or conducting nuclear design work outside the US.
Limits India’s nuclear ambitions as it prevents domestic production of US nuclear tech components.
India seeks an exemption to allow local manufacturing and scale up nuclear power generation.

Progress and Challenges

India has committed to amending the Atomic Energy Act and CLNDA.
Political challenge in India as passing amendments in Parliament may be difficult.
US initially sought a legal commitment from India, but New Delhi has provided only assurances so far.
Biden administration initiated work on granting an 810 exemption for Holtec International but faced procedural delays.
New administration likely to continue efforts, unlocking commercial potential of the Indo-US nuclear partnership.

{GS2 – IR – India-US} India-US TRUST Initiative

Context (IE): India and the US launched the Transforming Relationship Utilizing Strategic Technology (TRUST) initiative to secure supply chains for critical minerals, pharmaceuticals, and advanced materials.

About the TRUST Initiative

Objective: Strengthen cooperation in strategic minerals, reduce dependence on China, and enhance technology transfer.
Partnerships: Builds on India’s participation in the Minerals Security Partnership (MSP) and the Minerals Security Finance Network (MSFN).

Key Features of TRUST

Strengthening Critical Minerals Supply Chains

Targets lithium, REEs, and high-tech materials crucial for defense, semiconductors, and energy storage.
India: Expanding mineral exploration and refining capabilities.
US: Facilitating investments, research, and technological collaborations.

Boosting Pharma Sector & API Production

Reducing India’s reliance on China for Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs).
Developing alternative supply chains for pharmaceuticals.
Securing essential minerals like lithium, magnesium, zinc, and selenium for medicine manufacturing.

Facilitating Technology Transfer & Export Control Relaxation

Removing barriers in high-tech material trade.
Streamlining regulations for faster R&D collaborations in strategic industries.

Promoting Innovation in Key Sectors

Enhances joint R&D in AI, semiconductors, quantum computing, space, biotechnology & defense.
Encourages collaboration between governments, academia, and private industries.

Significance of the TRUST Initiative

Reducing Dependence on China

China controls 70% of the global rare earth minerals market and dominates processing infrastructure.
TRUST enables India and the US to develop alternative supply chains to reduce vulnerabilities.

Strengthening Atmanirbhar Bharat

Aligns with India’s National Critical Minerals Mission (2024-31), focusing on mineral exploration, processing, and recycling.
Encourages self-reliance in mineral and pharmaceutical production.

Enhancing High-Tech Trade & Investments

Expands US investments in India’s tech and mineral sectors.
Strengthens collaborations in AI, semiconductors, and energy storage.

Supporting Clean Energy & EV Manufacturing

Secures lithium, cobalt, and nickel for electric vehicle (EV) batteries.
Strengthens supply chains for renewable energy technologies.

Existing India-US Initiatives

Initiative	Focus
TRUST Initiative (2025)	Critical minerals, pharma, advanced materials, technology transfer
National Critical Minerals Mission (India, 2024-31)	Exploration, processing, and recycling of critical minerals
Minerals Security Partnership (MSP, 2023)	Multilateral investment in critical mineral supply chains
Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies (iCET, 2022)	Collaboration on semiconductors, AI, and defense applications
Battery & Critical Mineral Recycling Program (US, 2024)	$125 million in grants for battery recycling and R&D
Critical Minerals & Materials Program (US, 2020)	$675 million investment for supply chain diversification

Important Critical Minerals

Neodymium, praseodymium, samarium: High-performance magnets for defense systems.
Lithium, cobalt, nickel: Essential for batteries, EVs, and energy storage.
Gallium, indium: Crucial for semiconductors and AI hardware.
Ultra-pure silicon, superconductors: Required for quantum computing.
Europium, terbium: Used in biotech imaging and medical diagnostics.
Scandium, heat-resistant alloys: Important for space technology.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – FRs} Obscenity Laws and Freedom of Expression

Context (IE): Recent legal actions against YouTuber Ranveer Allahbadia and comedian Samay Raina for alleged obscene remarks have reignited debates on obscenity laws and free speech in India.

Role of Comedy in Society

Social Critique & Awareness: Challenges authority and exposes hypocrisy.
Emotional & Mental Well-being: Reduces stress and fosters resilience.
Challenging Stereotypes: Encourages progressive thinking.
Cultural Reflection & Entertainment: Evolves societal narratives.
Bridging Differences: Creates shared experiences across communities.

Constitutional Framework Regulating Speech

Article 19(1)(a): Guarantees freedom of speech and expression.
Article 19(2): Permits reasonable restrictions on grounds of public order, decency, and morality.

Philosophical & Ethical Perspectives on Free Speech

Harm Principle (John Stuart Mill): Speech should be free unless it causes harm.
Kantian Ethics: Speech must uphold human dignity.
Virtue Ethics (Aristotle): Ethical speech should promote positive values.
Social Contract Theory: Free speech should respect social stability.
Ethics of Care: Speech should nurture inclusivity.
Consequentialism: If obscene humour has negative effects, it should be regulated.

Freedom of Expression Vs Societal Sensitivities

Political Satire: Essential for democracy, but can provoke unrest.
Religious Critique: Necessary for reform, but may offend believers.
Obscene Humour: A personal choice, but spreads vulgarity.
Artistic Freedom: Encourages diverse viewpoints, but can offend communities.
Digital Expression: Promotes open discussions, but may spread offensive content.

Obscenity

Obscenity: Any content that violates public decency and morality.
Legal Standard: Content that is lascivious, depraving, or corrupting societal values.
Offensive Humour: Speech or comedy on sensitive topics like religion, caste, or gender, often leading to legal scrutiny.

Distinction Between Related Terms

Obscenity: Corrupts impressionable minds (e.g., explicit sexual material).
Vulgarity: Causes disgust but doesn’t corrupt morals (e.g., use of swear words).
Indecency: Violates societal norms without being obscene (e.g., revealing clothing in conservative areas).

Evolution of Obscenity Law

Hicklin Test: Judges obscenity by assessing if isolated parts of a work could corrupt susceptible individuals, including children, setting a low threshold for banning content.
Miller Test: Determines obscenity based on prurient interest, explicit content violating local laws, and lack of political, artistic, scientific, or literary value.

Queen v. Hicklin (1868): Established the Hicklin Test, defining obscenity based on isolated passages’ impact on vulnerable individuals.
Roth v. United States (1957): Rejected the Hicklin Test, introducing the community standards test, considering the work as a whole.
Ranjit D. Udeshi v. State of Maharashtra (1964): Adopted the Hicklin Test in India, banning Lady Chatterley’s Lover for obscenity.
Aveek Sarkar v. State of West Bengal (2014): Indian SC shifted to community standards, assessing obscenity based on evolving social norms.
Recent Cases (including 2024 College Romance Case): Courts distinguish profanity from obscenity.

Key Laws Governing Obscenity

Section 294, Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS): Prohibits sale, distribution, advertisement of obscene material, including digital content. Punishment upto 2 yrs jail & ₹5,000 fine for first-time offenders.
Section 67 of the IT Act, 2000: Regulates online publication of obscene material. Punishment up to 3 years imprisonment and ₹5 lakh fine for first-time offenders.
Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986: Prohibits indecent portrayal of women in media.
Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act, 1995: Regulates TV content standards.
Cinematograph Act, 1952: Governs film certification.
Young Persons (Harmful Publication) Act, 1956: Protects minors from explicit content.

Obscenity Laws in Other Countries

United States: First Amendment protects free speech; Miller Test (1973) assesses obscenity.
United Kingdom: Obscene Publications Act (1857) originally applied the Hicklin Test; later revised under the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act (2008).

Judicial Views on Free Speech and Humour

S. Rangarajan v. P. Jagjivan Ram (1989): State must protect free speech, not surrender to public outrage.
Bobby Art International v. Om Pal Singh Hoon (1996): Allowed screening of Bandit Queen citing its social message.
Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015): Struck down Section 66A of IT Act, affirming that subjective offense cannot limit free speech.

Arguments for Free Speech in Humour

Political Critique & Accountability: Satire exposes corruption and inefficiency.
Social Change & Stereotype Breaking: Challenges regressive norms.
Mental Health Benefits: Humour provides emotional resilience.
Censorship and Authoritarianism: Suppressing humour limits democratic dissent.
Subjectivity of Offense: What offends one may not offend another.
Audience’s Right to Choose: Individuals can self-regulate their content consumption.

Arguments Against Obscene Humour

Public Morality & Cultural Values: Obscene jokes normalize indecency.
Gender Inequality: Sexist humour perpetuates discrimination.
Impact on Minors: Early exposure distorts social behaviour.
Workplace Harassment: Sexual jokes create hostile environments.
Community Standards Violation: Public content should respect shared values.
Legal Limits on Free Speech: Societal harmony must be maintained.

Challenges in Regulating Obscene Humour

Lack of Clear Definition: Subjective legal interpretation.
Conflict Between Free Speech & Morality: Governmental restrictions limit artistic expression.
Legal Inconsistency: Courts apply differing standards (Hicklin vs. Community Standards Test).
Rise of Digital Media: Unregulated online content increases obscenity concerns.
Selective Censorship: Politicians and religious groups selectively use obscenity laws.
Impact of Social Media Outrage: Public perception influences legal action against comedians.

{GS2 – Vulnerable Sections – Women} Bombay HC Allows Termination of 25-Week Pregnancy

Context (IE | IE): The Bombay HC allowed a 35-year-old woman to terminate her 25-week pregnancy at a private hospital, despite the existing law that restricts abortions beyond 24 weeks, citing urgency and the medical board’s recommendations.
April 2024 Case: A similar case allowed a 37-year-old woman to terminate her 27-week pregnancy due to foetal abnormalities, highlighting the need for clarity in abortion laws beyond 24 weeks.

Bombay High Court’s Decision

Reproductive Rights and Autonomy: The Court emphasized the petitioner’s right to reproductive freedom and bodily autonomy.
Medical Condition: The Court considered the medical condition, with the Medical Board from JJ Hospital confirming the foetal abnormality and the risk to the child’s future health.

Law on Abortion in India

MTP Act (1971): Abortion is permitted up to 20 weeks with one medical practitioner’s advice, and between 20-24 weeks, with approval from two medical practitioners.
- Post-24 Weeks: Requires approval from a medical board for substantial foetal abnormality or risk to the woman’s life.
- Foetal Abnormalities: Includes conditions like skeletal dysplasia that can lead to severe physical and neurological deformities, necessitating multiple corrective surgeries.
- Medical Board Role: Critical in deciding whether a pregnancy can be terminated based on the woman’s health or foetal abnormalities.
- State-Approved Hospitals: Only those with required certifications can legally perform abortions beyond 24 weeks.

Regulations for Private Hospitals

Termination at Private Hospitals: MTP Act mandates that private hospitals must be approved by the District Health Committee to perform abortions, with a certificate under Rule 5.
Form A: Requires two categories of approval, up to 12 weeks and 12-24 weeks. However, there is no provision for termination beyond 24 weeks, causing issues for private hospitals.

{GS2 – Vulnerable Sections – Women} Chhattisgarh HC Ruling on Marital Rape

Context (IE): Chhattisgarh HC extended marital rape immunity to Section 377 of the IPC, reducing legal options for women in cases of non-consensual sex.
It ruled that “unnatural sex” between a husband and wife is not an offense under Section 377.

Marital Rape

Marital rape or spousal rape is the act of sexual intercourse with one’s spouse without the spouse’s consent. The lack of consent is the essential element and does not always involve physical violence.

Legal Status of Marital Rape in India

According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), around 30% of married women have experienced spousal violence, yet marital rape is still legally exempt. This raises serious concerns about women’s rights and equality under the law.
Marital Rape Exception under Section 375 of IPC exempts husbands from prosecution for non-consensual sex with wives over 18.
Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS): includes a marital rape exemption in Section 63, which states that sexual acts between a man and his wife are not considered rape if the wife is at least 18 years old.
Violation of Article 21: It disregards a woman’s right to personal liberty and bodily autonomy.
Contradiction with POCSO: Marital rape is criminalised if the wife is under 18, but similar protections are not extended to adult women.
Judicial Intervention: Although some High Courts have questioned the constitutionality of the exemption, no clear judicial verdict has emerged yet.

Section 377

Punishment: Section 377 carried up to 10 years in jail for non-consensual “unnatural sex.”
2018 SC Judgment: The court noted that while homosexuality was decriminalized in 2018, Section 377 still applies to non-consensual unnatural acts.
Article 14: The non-criminalization of marital rape violates the principle of equality, treating married women differently from unmarried women.
Limitation Post-Ruling: The ruling removes this protection for married women, making legal recourse more difficult.

Omission of Section 377 in the BNS

BNS Omission: Causing concern over the lack of protection for men, LGBTQIA+ individuals, and bestiality.
- Transgender Protection: The 2019 Transgender Protection Act offers limited penalties (max 2 years), deemed insufficient.
Parliamentary Concerns: Standing Committee in 2023 noted the omission leaves gaps in protection.
Narrow Focus: The BNS focuses on women as victims, ignoring other potential victims.

{GS3 – S&T – BioTech} Russia’s New mRNA-Based Cancer Vaccine

Context (TH): In December 2024, Russia announced the development of a new mRNA-based personalized cancer vaccine, set to be available for free to patients by early 2025.

mRNA (Messenger RNA)

mRNA carries genetic instructions from DNA to ribosomes to direct protein synthesis.
Role in Vaccines: mRNA vaccines provide genetic information to instruct cells to produce proteins that trigger an immune response, teaching the immune system to recognize and fight diseases.

mRNA Cancer Vaccine

Technology Adaptation: Developed from COVID-19 vaccine technology, mRNA cancer vaccines train the immune system to detect and target cancer cells.
Therapeutic Purpose: Unlike preventive vaccines, these are designed for patients with existing cancer, not for disease prevention.

How mRNA Cancer Vaccines Work?

Cancer Immune Evasion: Cancer cells often evade immune detection. Immunotherapy boosts the immune system’s ability to target and destroy these cells.
Selective Targeting: Unlike chemotherapy, which damages both healthy and cancerous cells, immunotherapy selectively targets only cancer cells, reducing side effects.
Personalization: These vaccines are tailored to each patient, targeting specific tumor antigens for more effective treatment.

Challenges and Considerations

Not a Cure-All: Immunotherapy, though promising, may not be suitable for all cancer types, and its effectiveness is still being evaluated in various cancers.

Also refer to Nobel Prize in Medicine 2023 for mRNA Vaccines; CAR-T cell Therapy

{GS3 – S&T – Tech} Project Waterworth – Subsea Internet Cable Initiative

Context: Meta recently introduced Project Waterworth, a massive subsea internet cable initiative that will span 50,000 km, making it the longest subsea cable system in the world.

About Project Waterworth

Aim: It aims to bolster global internet infrastructure, enhancing connectivity across regions including the United States, India, Brazil, and South Africa.
Global Digital Infrastructure: This initiative aligns with Meta’s broader strategy to enhance global digital infrastructure, complementing previous projects like 2Africa and Apricot.

Significance

Boosting Digital Access & Economy: Expected to boost digital access, economic growth, and data transfer speeds across multiple continents.
Meeting High-Speed Internet Demand: By expanding its subsea cable network, Meta seeks to meet the escalating global demand for high-speed internet and advanced technologies.

What are undersea cables?

Undersea cables, also known as submarine communications cables, are fibre-optic cables laid on the ocean floor and used to transmit data between continents.
There are more than 600 active and planned submarine cables (Jan 2025) lying on the ocean floor.

What are Fiber optics?

Fiber optics refers to the technology and method of transmitting data as light pulses along a glass or plastic strand or fiber.

How do they work?

Data Transmission: Fiber optics transmits data in the form of light particles, or photons that pulse through a fiber optic cable.
Total Internal Reflection: When light signals are sent through the fiber optic cable, they reflect off the core and cladding in a series of zig-zag bounces, following a process called total internal reflection.
- The glass fiber core and the cladding each have a different refractive index that bends incoming light at a certain angle.
Optical Transmitters & Receivers: Convert electrical signals into light (transmitters) and back into data (receivers).

India – Key Player in Undersea Cables

India’s strategic location in the Indian Ocean has made it a key player in the expansion of submarine cable infrastructure.
As of 2023, India has 17 international undersea cables landing in various cities like Mumbai, Chennai, Cochin, Tuticorin, and Trivandrum.
- Examples: 2Africa Pearls, India Asia Xpress (IAX) and “India Europe Xpress (IEX) etc.
Department of Telecommunications (DoT) issues International Long-Distance (ILD) licenses for Undersea Cables.

Key Benefits of Undersea Cables

Backbone of the global Communication: Carrying approximately 99% of internet traffic and supporting critical services such as commerce, finance, government operations, digital health, and education.
Enable fast and reliable Internet: They ensure seamless, low-latency data exchange, smooth browsing, streaming, and communication.
Support AI, Cloud Computing, and High-Speed Data Transfers: They provide ultra-fast, secure connections essential for AI, cloud storage, and global businesses.
Boost Economic Growth and Digital Infrastructure: Enhanced connectivity empowers businesses and remote workers, driving tech-driven economic expansion and GDP growth.
Cost-Effective Long-Term Connectivity: Despite high initial costs, subsea cables offer more reliable and affordable connectivity over time.

Why Undersea Cables are Preferred over Satellites?

While satellite internet (e.g., Starlink) is useful in remote areas, undersea cables are preferred due to following reasons:

Lower Latency: Satellites have much higher latency compared to undersea cables.
- Latency refers to the time delay in data transmission from one point to another.
Higher Bandwidth: Limited bandwidth of Satellites makes them unsuitable for large-scale AI and cloud applications.
Less Expensive: Satellites are more expensive and less reliable than fiber-optic networks.

Threat to Undersea Cables

Damage from Anchors & Earthquakes: Ships dropping anchors and natural disasters can snap cables, disrupting global connectivity.
- E.g., estimated 150-200 faults occurring globally every year due to fishing, anchoring, natural hazards, and equipment failure.
Sabotage: E.g., in 2023, Taiwan accused two Chinese vessels of cutting the only two submarine cables to the Matsu Islands, leaving 14,000 residents without internet for six weeks.
Maintenance Issues: Repairs require deep-sea robots and specialized ships, making them time-consuming and costly.
- Multiple cables failures off the coast of West Africa in March 2024, led to significant internet disruptions affecting at least 10 nations.
Geopolitical Concerns: Countries compete for control over strategic cable routes, leading to security and regulatory challenges.
- Laying and maintaining subsea cables involve billions of dollars, limiting expansion in some regions.
Cybersecurity Threats: Undersea cables are vulnerable to espionage, hacking, and sabotage, posing risks to data security.

Initiatives to Protect Undersea Cables

International Cable Protection Committee (ICPC): Founded in 1958 ICPC is the world’s leading organisation promoting submarine cable protection and resilience.
International Advisory Body for Submarine Cable Resilience: Launched by International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and ICPC in 2024 to strengthen the resilience of submarine cables.
International Telecommunication Union (ITU): ITU is at the forefront of efforts to enhance the resilience of these cables, through cooperation, standard-setting, and technical guidance.

{Prelims – In News} Corruption Perceptions Index 2024

Context (IE): India ranks 96th out of 180 countries in Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) 2024.

About Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI)

CPI Scoring: The CPI uses a scale from 0 (highly corrupt) to 100 (corruption-free). India scored 38 in 2024, reflecting corruption concerns.
Data Sources: The score is derived from at least three sources from 13 distinct corruption surveys, including those by World Bank and the World Economic Forum.
Global Performance: Over two-thirds of countries have scores below 50, with a global average of 43. Many countries’ scores have worsened since 2012.
2024 Score: India’s score has declined from 40 in 2022 to 39 in 2023 and 38 in 2024, indicating a deteriorating perception of public sector corruption.
Regional Context: India’s CPI score is higher than Pakistan (27) and Bangladesh (23), but lower than Sri Lanka (32).
Asia-Pacific Region: The region’s average score has dropped by one point to 44, showing insufficient progress in combating corruption.

Corruption’s Link to Climate Crisis

Climate Finance Misuse: Corruption is linked to the misuse of funds intended to address climate change, which hampers climate action and deepens environmental damage.
Global Impact: Corruption reduces the effectiveness of climate change policies, preventing funds from reaching vulnerable populations and delaying necessary interventions.