Current Affairs – October 18, 2024

{GS1 – Geo – EG – Mineral Resources} Shale Gas in Jharkhand **

Context (PIB): According to a recent study, the eastern South Karanpura coalfield in Jharkhand’s Ramgarh district shows promising potential for shale gas generation.

Scientists employed Rock-Eval pyrolysis to assess the potential of rock samples.

Rock-Eval pyrolysis is a laboratory technique to evaluate sedimentary rocks’ hydrocarbon content and thermal maturity, particularly for petroleum exploration.

Government Policies and Pilot Projects Regarding Shale Gas in India

HELP Policy (2016): The Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy provides a unified license for exploring all hydrocarbons, including shale gas, to attract investment and enhance exploration.
ONGC Projects: ONGC has initiated pilot projects in the Cambay and Damodar Valley Basin to assess shale gas viability.
Other Efforts: Shale gas exploration is underway in the Krishna-Godavari and Cauvery basins.

Significance of Shale Gas for India

Energy Security: Developing domestic shale gas reserves could help reduce India’s heavy reliance on imported oil and gas, enhancing energy independence.
Economic Growth: Shale gas exploration can create jobs in the energy sector, stimulate technological advancements, and boost infrastructure development.
Cleaner Energy Transition: Natural gas, including shale gas, burns cleaner than coal, helping India transition to cleaner energy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Diversification of Energy Sources: Shale gas could diversify India’s energy mix, reducing its dependence on coal and imported oil.
Global Competitiveness: Shale gas development, similar to the U.S. shale boom, could enhance India’s position in the global energy market.

Challenges for Shale Gas Development in India

Geological Complexities: India’s shale formations are more complex and often found at deeper levels, making extraction more difficult than in the U.S.
Water Scarcity: The regions rich in shale gas often face water scarcity, complicating the fracking process, which requires large amounts of water.
Environmental and Regulatory Issues: Concerns over groundwater contamination and seismic activity remain, and India’s regulatory framework around shale gas exploration is still evolving.
Finite Resource: Shale gas is still a finite fossil fuel, and reliance on it may delay a broader transition to renewable energy sources.
High Infrastructure Costs: Significant investments in infrastructure, such as drilling rigs and pipelines, are needed, which could drive up energy production costs.
Public Health Concerns: Communities near fracking sites report health issues such as respiratory problems and skin rashes linked to the chemicals used in fracking.

{GS2 – IR – Asia} Korean Peninsula and India

Context (IE|TH|TOI): North Korea announced that more than 1.4 million citizens had applied to join the army and destroyed border infrastructure in response to South Korean drone propaganda.

Recent Issue in the Korean Peninsula

Destruction of Roads and Railways by North Korea along its southern border in response to alleged South Korean drone operations spreading anti-Pyongyang propaganda.
Balloon Trash Retaliation: North Korea started sending helium balloons filled with trash into South Korea in retaliation for propaganda leaflets sent by South Korean activists.
Increased Hostilities: Tensions have been growing since Kim Jong Un labelled South Korea as “hostile“ in a recent constitutional amendment.

Significance of the Korean Peninsula concerning India

Strategic Geopolitical Importance: Its location in East Asia positions it among major powers like China, Japan, Russia, and the US. Its stability is crucial for India’s Act East Policy and Indo-Pacific strategy.
Balance China’s assertiveness: The US-South Korea alliance helps influence India’s strategic role.
Bilateral trade with South Korea is at $27 billion in 2022-23. Investments from Samsung, Hyundai, and LG enhance Make in India and technology transfer. Regional instability may disrupt FDI.
Security and Defense Relations: Joint exercises and maritime security bolster the Indo-Pacific security framework. North Korea’s nuclear program raises proliferation concerns.
Indo-Pacific Stability is crucial, highlighting freedom of navigation and regional security. Rising tensions may affect the region, prompting India to engage through forums like the Quad.
Diplomatic and Humanitarian Engagement: India’s neutral stance and advocacy for denuclearisation foster stability on the Korean Peninsula.
Cultural and Soft Power Linkages: The rising popularity of Korean pop culture in India strengthens cultural diplomacy and fosters deeper bilateral ties.

How North-South Korea Hostility Affects India

Disrupt global supply chains, particularly in India’s electronics and automotive sectors, and lead to oil price fluctuations that threaten energy security.
Affects bilateral trade of $27 billion with South Korea and also affects agreements like the CEPA.
Geopolitical and Security Concerns: An escalating conflict could destabilise Asia, complicating India’s security dynamics and partnerships with the US and South Korea.
Nuclear Proliferation Concerns: North Korea’s nuclear development increases proliferation risks, potentially prompting China and Pakistan to bolster their military capabilities.
Impact on Strategic Interests in East Asia: Instability on the Korean peninsula could hinder India’s Act East Policy and limit economic partnerships with East Asia.
Humanitarian and Diplomatic Role: India may need to mediate diplomatic efforts to promote dialogue and de-escalation as a part of its commitment to global peacebuilding.

Way Ahead for Addressing North-South Korea Hostility and India’s Role

Diplomatic Engagement between North and South Korea to de-escalate military tensions, similar to the 2018 inter-Korean summits that temporarily reduced hostilities.
International Cooperation: India can leverage its ties with major powers like China, Russia, and the US to facilitate peace negotiations, using multilateral forums to ensure all stakeholders’ collaboration.
Reviving Denuclearization Talks by emphasising a comprehensive approach involving regional actors, as seen in the 2019 Hanoi Summit.
Enhancing Regional Security Frameworks: Promoting a regional security framework akin to the ASEAN Regional Forum can foster dialogue on security issues and reduce conflict risks in East Asia.
Humanitarian Initiatives: India should address humanitarian needs in North Korea, offering assistance during crises, as demonstrated by its previous food aid efforts during famines.
Economic Engagement: Strengthening economic partnerships with South Korea, particularly through the revitalisation of the CEPA, can buffer against geopolitical uncertainties.

{GS2 – IR – India-Bangladesh} Extradition Treaty

Context (IE): Bangladesh’s International Crimes Tribunal issued an arrest warrant against former PM Sheikh Hasina for her alleged involvement in “crimes against humanity”.

India – Bangladesh Extradition Treaty

In 2013, India and Bangladesh executed an extradition treaty as a strategic measure to address insurgency and terrorism along their shared borders.
It was subsequently amended in 2016 to ease the exchange of fugitives wanted by both nations. The treaty has facilitated the transfer of several notable political prisoners.

Grounds for extradition

The treaty mandates the extradition of individuals charged with or convicted of crimes that warrant a minimum sentence of one year’s imprisonment.
A key requirement for extradition is the principle of dual criminality, meaning that the offence must be punishable in both countries.
Also valid for attempts to commit, aiding, abetting, inciting, or acting as an accomplice in such crimes.

Grounds for refusal of extradition

Article 6 of the treaty stipulates that extradition may be refused if the offence is “political nature”.
It can also be refused if the accusation is not “made in good faith in the interests of justice” or if it involves military offences not considered “an offence under general criminal law.”

What is Extradition?

SC defines extradition as “the delivery on the part of one State to another of those whom it is desired to deal with for crimes of which they have been accused or convicted and are justifiable in the Courts of the other State”. It is typically enabled by a bilateral or multilateral treaty.

Extradition law in India

The Ministry of External Affairs acts as the central authority for extradition matters.
The Extradition Act 1962 provides the legislative basis for extradition of a fugitive criminal from India.
India has extradition treaties with 44 nations.

Principles of Extradition Treaty

Extradition applies only to such offences which are mentioned in the treaty.
Principle of dual criminality is applied, which means that the offence sought to be an offence in the national laws of the requesting as well as requested country.
Requested country must be satisfied that there is a prima facie case made against the offender.
Extradition should be made against only for the offence (rule of speciality).
The accused must be provided with a free and fair trial.

{GS2 – IR – India-China} Battle of Walong

Context (TH): 62 years of Battle of Walong. Army will be inaugurating Walong War Memorial and Shaurya Sthal at Lama Spur. Set during the 1962 Sino-Indian War, the Battle of Walong occurred at the easternmost tip of Arunachal Pradesh.

Chinese forces launched multiple offensives in Arunachal Pradesh during the 1962 Sino-Indian War. Walong became a key target for China’s People’s Liberation Army, aiming to break through Indian defences and capture the region.
- Located near the tri-junction of India, China, and Myanmar, Walong was the only advanced landing ground (ALG) in the region.
Although Indian forces eventually had to withdraw due to overwhelming Chinese numbers, the defence of Walong is remembered for the extraordinary valour of Indian soldiers.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – Citizenship} Assam Accord & Section 6A

Context (IE|TH|TOI): A five-judge Constitution Bench of the SC upheld by a 4-1 majority the unique process for granting citizenship to migrants who entered Assam until March 24, 1971.

Articles 5-11 (Part II) of IC define citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution.
Assam Accord (1985) is a historic agreement signed between the Government of India and Assamese leaders to address concerns about illegal immigration from Bangladesh.
Cut-off Date for Citizenship: Migrants who entered between January 1, 1966, and March 24, 1971, were allowed conditional stay but faced temporary exclusion from electoral rolls.
Section 6A of the Citizenship Act (1955): According to Section 6A, any person migrating to Assam after March 24, 1971, is considered an illegal immigrant and is ineligible for Indian citizenship.

Pros of Assam Accord and Section 6A

Cultural Protection: Clause 6 of the Assam accord specifically mandates constitutional safeguards to protect their cultural, social, and linguistic identity.
Legal Framework for Citizenship: Section 6A of the Citizenship Act (1985) clearly defines citizenship in Assam, establishing March 24, 1971, as the cut-off date.
Parliamentary Authority: The 2024 Supreme Court ruling affirmed Parliament’s power under Article 11 to legislate on citizenship matters.
Pluralism: Section 6A upholds Assamese culture while coexisting within a broader national context.
Electoral Stability: The SC 2019 ruling emphasised the vital role of the National Register of Citizens (NRC) process in ensuring electoral integrity.

Challenges of Assam Accord and Section 6A

Implementation Issues: Only 1.9 million of 3.3 million NRC applicants were recognised as citizens.
Outdated Provisions: Justice Pardiwala described Section 6A as “temporally unreasonable“, citing the changing dynamics of migration and arguing that “laws must evolve with the times”.
Post-1971 Migrants are treated as illegal immigrants as per section 6. Reports indicate that approximately 1.3 million individuals face the risk of statelessness due to this cut-off.
Potential for Discrimination: SC acknowledged that “differential treatment must be justifiable” under section 6A, challenging Article 14’s guarantee of equality before the law.
Conflicts with Other Laws: CAA 2019 introduced Section 6B, granting citizenship to non-Muslim migrants from Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh, with a cut-off date of December 31, 2014.

Way forward

Strengthening Implementation Mechanisms: Establish a robust mechanism for detecting illegal immigrants to improve enforcement of Section 6A. E.g. Israel’s biometric data usage on the border.
Regular Review and Updating of Laws: Justice Pardiwala emphasised the “Doctrine of Temporal Unreasonableness“ suggesting that laws must evolve.
Addressing Humanitarian Concerns by Introducing legal provisions to assist migrants excluded after 1971, balancing humanitarian needs with national security.
Harmonizing CAA and Section 6A: Resolve legal contradictions between Section 6A and the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) through legislative review or constitutional amendment.
Implement constitutional safeguards under Clause 6 of the Assam Accord to protect Assamese culture while promoting national integration, Such as the protections granted to Sikkim under Article 371F.
Completion of NRC and Regular Updates: Ensure the National Register of Citizens (NRC) process is completed transparently, with regular updates for accuracy.
Enhanced Border Management: Secure and modernise Assam’s international borders to prevent illegal immigration while fostering legitimate trade with Bangladesh.

Read more > Citizenship Amendment Act 2019

{GS3 – IE – Budget} Budget Allocation and Inefficiencies **

Context (TP|ET): Inefficiencies in the Indian government’s budget allocation and spending practices are limited to their budgetary outlays but should focus on the actual outcomes of these programs.

Significance of Budget Allocation and Its Efficiency

Resource Distribution: ₹1.13 lakh crore allocation to the National Health Mission in 2023-24 aims to address financial burdens on households that account for 68% of health expenditures.
Economic Growth by targeting investments in high-impact sectors. The 2023 budget’s ₹10 lakh crore is for capital expenditure to boost productivity.
Social Equity by directing resources to underserved communities. MGNREGA, with a ₹73,000 crore allocation, significantly improves rural livelihoods and contributes to poverty alleviation.
Accountability and Transparency: The PM Poshan scheme, providing meals to 115 million children, enables evaluation of program effectiveness and ensures responsible fund usage.
Monitoring and Evaluation are vital for ensuring budget efficiency. The ASER 2023 report highlights education gaps and emphasises the need for better assessment frameworks.
Strategic priorities and policy focus: The 2023-24 budget’s allocation of ₹19,700 crore for renewable energy projects underscores the commitment to sustainability.

Factors Contributing to Budget Allocation Inefficiencies

Focus on Outlays Rather Than Outcomes: The PM Poshan scheme provides millions of meals; the ASER 2023 report shows nearly 25% of students aged 14-18 struggle with basic literacy.
Procedural Compliance Over Results leads to a “ticking boxes” mentality. In the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana, this resulted in subpar housing quality and unmet beneficiary needs.
Misalignment with Community Needs: Top-down decisions often ignore local contexts. The National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) struggled in states where local needs were not adequately assessed.
Lack of Stakeholder Engagement results in misalignment between program goals and community needs. The Digital India program faced adoption issues in rural areas.
Insufficient Monitoring and Evaluation: Many educational ICT projects, like the Smart Class initiative, failed due to inadequate oversight.
Underutilized Schemes: Despite substantial funding, a mismatch between the training provided and local job market needs left many trainees unemployed under the Skill India Mission.
Limited Flexibility in Implementation has hindered the success of initiatives like the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), where road projects often do not consider local needs or preferences.

Measures to Enhance Effectiveness of Budgetary Spending

Shift to Outcome-Based Budgeting with measurable results, using performance indicators, similar to the results-based financing model in NITI Aayog‘s pilot project in Uttar Pradesh.
Stakeholder Engagement: Involve stakeholders, including teachers, parents, and civil society, in program design and implementation to ensure initiatives effectively address local needs.
Strengthening Monitoring and Evaluation Framework for continuous assessment of budget programs, including regular audits and impact evaluations to enable data-driven adjustments.
Incorporating Best Practices: Learn from successful initiatives, such as the Personalized Adaptive Learning (PAL) approach in Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh, to leverage.
Capacity Building: Train civil servants and administrators in outcome-based planning, stakeholder communication, and project management to foster a results-oriented culture.

{GS3 – IE – Institutions} PFC Infra Finance IFSC Limited

Context (PIB): PFC Infra Finance IFSC Limited (PIFIL), a wholly owned subsidiary of Power Finance Corporation Limited (PFC), has received approval from International Financial Services Centres Authority (IFSCA) to commence business as a Finance Company in IFSC GIFT City Gujarat.

PIFIL, part of India’s largest non-banking financial company (NBFC) group, will be the first finance company in IFSC dedicated to power and infrastructure lending.

Power Finance Corporation Limited (PFC)

PFC is under the administrative control of the Ministry of Power. It is a leading Non-Banking Financial Corporation in the Country. It is also designated as the highest profit-making NBFC in India.
First Maharatna in the Financial space and an Infrastructure Finance Company by the RBI.
Designated as a “Nodal Agency” for the development of Integrated Power Development Scheme (IPDS) and Ultra Mega Power Projects (UMPPs).

International Financial Services Centres Authority (IFSCA)

Statutory authority under the International Financial Services Centres Authority Act, 2019.
It is a unified authority for developing and regulating financial products, services, and institutions in the International Financial Services Centre (IFSC) in India.
HQ: GIFT City, Gandhinagar in Gujarat.
Members: The Chairperson (appointed by the central government), a member each from the RBI, SEBI, the IRDAI, and the PFRDA, and two members from the Ministry of Finance.

{GS3 – S&T – Space} Space Pollution

Context (IE): Scientists recently discovered that Soot and aluminium oxides from rocket and satellite launches might damage the ozone layer and magnetic field.

Space competition has intensified again, leading to a sharp rise in rocket and satellite launches. In the past 15 years, rocket launches have tripled, and the number of satellites in orbit has increased tenfold.

Environmental Impact of Rocket and Satellite Launches

Space debris: The amount of space debris, including decommissioned satellites and spent rocket stages, has doubled in the last decade.
Upper Atmosphere Warming: Modern rockets, fuelled by fossil fuels, produce soot by-products, which could absorb heat and potentially increase Earth’s upper atmosphere temperature.
Ozone depletion: According to Geophysical Research Letters, Satellite burning and rising aluminium oxide levels may disrupt the planet’s thermal balance, damaging ozone.
Earth’s Magnetic Field: The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) concluded that forming metallic ash in the stratosphere due to satellite re-entries could weaken Earth’s magnetic field, allowing more cosmic radiation to reach its surface.
Perchlorates: Solid rocket boosters often contain highly toxic perchlorates, a class of highly toxic chemicals that can contaminate soil and water.
Ground contamination: Contamination near the launch sites is a documented issue that impacts local ecosystems and potentially human health.
Water vapour: High-altitude water vapour emissions can have a warming effect by contributing to the greenhouse effect. However, the magnitude of this effect is still being researched.
Noise Pollution: Rocket launches generate significant noise pollution, impacting wildlife and potentially human communities near launch sites. While not a global problem, it is a localised environmental concern.

Way forward and suggestions

Cleaner propellants: Developing propellants with fewer harmful emissions is crucial. Research is underway into alternative fuels, like green propellants (with less carbon and soot) and electric propulsion. For example, NASA’s Green Propellant Infusion Mission.
Improved combustion efficiency: More efficient engine designs can minimise the number of pollutants released per thrust unit. For example, SpaceX is exploring using methane as a cleaner fuel.
International agreements: Establishing clear international standards and regulations for space launch emissions is vital. Example: The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) provides a platform for international cooperation on sustainable space practices.
Environmental impact assessments: Mandatory assessments for all launch projects would help identify and mitigate potential risks.
Comprehensive atmospheric monitoring: More detailed and comprehensive monitoring of stratospheric pollution from launches is crucial for assessing the overall impact.
Data sharing and transparency: Enhanced transparency and data sharing among space agencies and private companies are essential for a holistic understanding of the problem.
Active debris removal: Developing technologies to remove defunct satellites and other debris from orbit is crucial for long-term space sustainability. For example, the International Space Station (ISS) partners have agreed to limit debris and emissions through various guidelines and protocols.
Design for deorbit: Designing satellites and rocket stages for controlled deorbiting at the end of their life cycle reduces the amount of space debris. Example: Clean Space initiative by the European Space Agency (ESA) to mitigate space debris and promote sustainability in space activities.
Reusability: Continuing to improve the reusability of rockets reduces the need to manufacture and launch new ones. Example – SpaceX Falcon 9, India’s Pushpak.
Optimised trajectories: Minimizing the impact on sensitive ecosystems by carefully selecting launch trajectories. For example, the ESA’s Ariane 6.

{Prelims – Bio – Diseases} New Method to Treat Brain TB *

Context (PIB): A new method can target the brain directly. Traditional treatments involve high doses of oral anti-TB drugs, which often fail to achieve efficiency due to the blood-brain barrier (BBB).

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a selective semi-permeable membrane between the blood and the interstitium of the brain, allowing cerebral blood vessels to regulate molecule and ion movement between the blood and the brain.

Scientists used chitosan-based nanoparticles to deliver TB medicines directly to the brain via the nose, bypassing the BBB. These particles were then made into slightly larger clusters called nano-aggregates; they can hold TB drugs like isoniazid (INH) and rifampicin (RIF).
Chitosan’s mucoadhesive properties enable nano-aggregates to adhere to the nasal mucosa, enhancing drug release and prolonging their effectiveness.
It could be applied to treat other brain infections, neurodegenerative diseases (like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s), brain tumours, and epilepsy by enabling efficient drug delivery to the brain.

Chitosan – Based Nano Particles (ChNPs)

Chitosan (a natural carbohydrate polymer with numerous ideal properties, nontoxic, biodegradable, and bioadhesive) has been extensively used in pharmaceutical sciences and other sectors.
Drug Delivery: They can be used to deliver drugs in the gastrointestinal, ophthalmic, nasal, sublingual, transdermal, and vaginal tracts. ChNPs can also be used to deliver hormones.
Food: ChNPs can enhance the shelf life of foods by increasing their antimicrobial activity. They can also stabilise antioxidants like vitamins and tea polyphenols, reducing lipid or protein oxidation.
Cosmetics: ChNPs can be used as hydrating agents in cosmetics.
Agriculture: ChNPs can deliver fertilisers, pesticides, and plant growth promoters.

{Prelims – Envi – Species} African Penguins (Spheniscus demersus)

Context (DTE): Artificial nests can enhance the breeding success of African penguins. The species’ population has declined by nearly 90% over the past 70 years.

Also known as the African black-footed or jackass penguin, it is the only penguin species found on the African continent.
Physical Description: Their bodies are torpedo-shaped; their backs are black, and their chests and bellies are white with a black inverted U-shaped stripe. A layer of fat provides additional protection against chilly ocean waters.

Credits: Flickr

They are excellent swimmers and divers. Emit a loud, braying, donkey-like call to communicate.
Distribution: Inhabits the Benguela and western Agulhas ecosystems of southern Africa.
Conservation Status: IUCN: Endangered | CITES: Appendix II.

{Prelims – Envi – Species} Reclassification of King Cobras

Context (DTE): King Cobra is reclassified into four new species.

King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)

Long been recognised as the world’s longest venomous snake. It is the national reptile of India.
Conservation Status: IUCN: Vulnerable | CITES Appendix II | WPA: Sch.II.

New Species reclassification

Northern King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)
- Range: Eastern Pakistan, northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, Eastern China, Southeast Asia.
Sunda King Cobra (Ophiophagus bungarus)
- Range: Southern Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Bali, and Southern Philippines.
- Named for its morphological and behavioural similarities to kraits.
Western Ghats King Cobra (Ophiophagus kaalinga)
- Range: Western Ghats of India, covering parts of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa & Maharashtra.
- Named for its dark colouration, with ‘kaalinga‘ derived from Kannada.
Luzon King Cobra (Ophiophagus salvatana)
- Range: Luzon Island in the northern Philippines.
- Named after the local Tagalog name for the king cobra.

{Prelims – In News} US “click-to-cancel” rule

Context (IE): United States’ Federal Trade Commission will implement a “click-to-cancel” rule.

It mandates that companies make ending subscriptions as straightforward as signing up and addressing consumer frustrations over complex cancellation methods.
India does not have any such regulation at the moment.

{Prelims – PIN India} Jog Waterfall, Karnataka

Context (TH): The Karnataka Government discussed plans to increase tourist footfall at Jog Falls.

It is also known as Gerusoppe Falls, located on the Sharavati River in the Western Ghats. With a drop of 253 meters (830 feet), it is the second-highest plunge waterfall in India.

Projects on Jog falls

Linganamakki Dam: Built in 1964, this dam is located upstream of Jog Falls and regulates the water flow to the falls.
Sharavathi Hydroelectric Project: One of the largest hydroelectric projects in Karnataka, it harnesses the power of the Sharavati River.
Gerusoppa Hydroelectric Project: This project, also known as the Sharavathi Tailrace Project, is situated downstream from Jog Falls. It taps into the residual water from the Sharavathi River.

Shravasti River

Origin and flow: Ambuthirtha in the Western Ghats. Flows westward into Arabian Sea at Honnavar.
Home to the rare and endemic freshwater fish species Batasio sharavatiensis.

{Prelims – PIN India} Roopkund Glacial lake

Context (TOI): Roopkund Lake (Uttarakhand) is being impacted by climate change.

Location: At the base of Mt. Trishul in the Garhwal Himalayas, part of the Nanda Devi National Park.
It is also known as the “Lake of Skeletons” due to the skeletal remains of an estimated 600-800 people found here. Some of these skeletons date back to around 1200 years. According to genetic research, these people were descended from various ethnic groups, including Mediterraneans.

Garhwal Himalaya

Part of the Himalayan Sivalik, the outermost hills of the Himalayas, Western part of Kumaon Himalaya
Located in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
Major Peaks: Nanda Devi, Kamet, Mana Peak, Mukut Parvat.

Read More About Nanda Devi National Park.

{Prelims – S&T – Space} Jiangmen Underground Neutrino Observatory (JUNO)

Context (TH): The JUNO in China is slated to start operations in 2025.

One of JUNO’s primary goals is to determine the mass hierarchy of neutrinos, which involves identifying which types of neutrinos are the lightest and heaviest.
The facility’s core feature is a massive 600-tonne spherical detector outfitted with thousands of light-detecting tubes. This detector will be enclosed in a 12-storey cylindrical pool of water.
Multi-purpose Research: The observatory will detect reactor neutrinos from nearby nuclear power plants, observe supernova neutrinos, study atmospheric and solar neutrinos, and investigate geo-neutrinos from the Earth’s interior.
International Collaboration: France, Germany, Italy, Russia, the U.S., and Taiwan.

{Prelims – Sci – Bio} Fungi May Get Its Own Taxonomical Kingdom: ‘Funga’

Context (DTE): Mushrooms, moulds, yeast, lichen, and mildew may soon be recognised under a new taxonomical kingdom called ‘Funga’ alongside animals and plants during the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Conference of Parties (COP16) in Colombia.

In 2021, the IUCN SSC & IUCN Re:wild were the first organisations to recognise fungi as new kingdoms.

Importance of Fungi

Fungi are important for life on Earth, playing key roles in decomposition, forest regeneration, mammalian digestion, carbon sequestration, and maintaining the global nutrient cycle.
Daily food items such as bread, cheese, wine, beer, and chocolate rely on fungi. Fungi are essential in mitigating climate change and wildlife extinction by regulating atmospheric carbon dioxide.
It is estimated that only 8% of the total 2.2 to 3.8 million species of fungi are scientifically known.
Approximately 2,000 new species of fungi are discovered annually worldwide.