Current Affairs – June 28, 2025

{GS1 – Geo – IG} Expanded Coastline of India

Context (IE): India’s coastline was revised in 2023-24, increasing from 7,516.6 km to 11,098.81 km, marking a 47.7% increase.

The total island count rose to 1,389, comprising 1,298 offshore and 91 inshore islands.
The revision was led by the Survey of India (MoST) and the National Hydrographic Office (MoD) under coordination by the National Maritime Security Coordinator (MoHA).
The coastline will now be reviewed every 10 years using advanced geospatial tools.

Reasons for the Increase

Higher resolution: Use of 1:250,000 scale captured finer coastal features like creeks and inlets.
GIS-based: GIS enabled precise coastline tracing, avoiding generalised curves.
Inclusion of islands: Previously unmapped offshore islands and coastal rocks were now included.
High Water Line: Coastline was measured using updated tidal boundaries based on 2011 NHO data.
Advanced tools: Drone imaging and satellite altimetry improved shoreline detection accuracy.
Shift in method: Older straight-line mapping was replaced with detailed contour-following tracing.

Coastline Paradox

The coastline paradox states that the measured length of a coastline increases as the measurement scale becomes finer, with no fixed value.

Fractal shaped: Coastlines have repeating patterns at all scales, like fractals.
Scale-dependent: Smaller units detect more irregularities, making the length infinite.
Applicable: The paradox also applies to other natural boundaries like rivers, mountains, and forests.

Key Findings

Top Rankings

Gujarat ranks first among states in coastline length (2,340.62 km).
Tamil Nadu has overtaken Andhra Pradesh to become the second-longest coastal state.
Andaman & Nicobar Islands have the longest coastline among all Indian entities (3,083.50 km).
Lakshadweep holds the second-longest coastline among UTs (144.80 km).

Coastline Growth

West Bengal recorded the highest percentage increase (357.6%) among all states.
Gujarat had the largest absolute increase (+1,125.9 km) among states.
Kerala recorded the lowest increase among states (+30.4 km or 5.3%).
Puducherry is the only Indian entity with a contraction, showing a 4.9 km drop (–10.3%).

Islands

Gujarat has the highest number of inshore (36) and offshore islands (108) among states.
Andaman & Nicobar Islands have the highest offshore island count in India (836).
Maharashtra ranks second in both offshore (105) and inshore islands (15).

Union Territories
Category	Highest	Second Highest	Lowest
Coastline length	Andaman & Nicobar	Lakshadweep	Puducherry
Coastline increase (km)	Andaman & Nicobar	Lakshadweep	Puducherry
Coastline increase (%)	Andaman & Nicobar	Daman & Diu	Puducherry
Offshore islands	Andaman & Nicobar	Lakshadweep	—
States
Category	Highest	Second Highest	Lowest
Coastline length	Gujarat	Tamil Nadu	Goa
Coastline increase (km)	Gujarat	West Bengal	Kerala
Coastline increase (%)	West Bengal	Goa	Kerala
Offshore islands	Gujarat	Maharashtra	—
Inshore islands	Gujarat	Maharashtra	—
Combined (States + UTs)
Category	Highest	Second Highest	Lowest
Coastline length	Andaman & Nicobar	Gujarat	Puducherry
Coastline increase (km)	Gujarat	Andaman & Nicobar	Puducherry
Coastline increase (%)	West Bengal	Goa	Puducherry
Offshore islands	Andaman & Nicobar	Gujarat	—
Inshore islands	Gujarat	Maharashtra	—

{GS1 – Geo – PG – Water Resources} India’s Water Crisis

Context (IE): India is facing an acute water crisis due to rising demand, depleting groundwater & climate change; an urgent & unified action is imperative for security & climate resilience.

Water Crisis in India: Status

Water stress: India ranks 13^th among world’s most water-stressed nations (World Resources Institute).
- 600 million Indians face high to extreme water stress, with demand likely to double supply by 2030 (NITI Aayog).
- 21 cities may run out of groundwater by 2030 (NITI Aayog). Chennai have already faced severe water crises.
Water Contamination: 70% of water sources are contaminated causing 2 lakh deaths annually from waterborne diseases (NITI Aayog).

Causes of Water Stress

Mismanagement: Excessive groundwater extraction for crops like paddy & unplanned urban expansion have severely strained water sources.
Pollution: Industrial waste & untreated sewage contaminate lakes, while encroachment on wetlands reduces natural water storage.
Climate Change: Erratic rainfall, frequent floods & extended droughts due to climate change disrupt water availability & agricultural stability.
Infrastructure Issues: Outdated supply systems, poor maintenance & fragmented water governance impede effective water management.
Public Awareness: Lack of citizen engagement & perception of water as a free, infinite resource hinder conservation efforts.

Its Implications

Economic: Water scarcity may cut India’s GDP by 6% by 2050 (World Bank), affecting agriculture & industries.
- Rainfall decline of 100 mm can reduce farmer income by 15% (kharif) & 7% (rabi), overall income could drop 15–25% in unirrigated areas.
Social: Unsafe water causes diseases & malnutrition, especially harming children and the vulnerable population.
Ecological: Water stress threatens biodiversity & damage fragile ecosystems.
Federal Tensions: River-sharing conflicts (like the Kaveri dispute) strain inter-state relations.
Diplomatic Strains: Cross-border water concerns, such as China’s dams on the Brahmaputra, may lead to geopolitical friction.

Government Initiatives for Water Conservation

Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Focuses on rainwater harvesting & groundwater recharge across all 740 districts.
Atal Bhujal Yojana: Promotes community-based groundwater management in 7 high-stress states.
Amrit Sarovar Scheme: Aims to develop 50,000 small water bodies for conservation.
Nal Se Jal: Aims to supply piped water to all rural households by 2024.
Namami Gange: Focuses on cleaning & rejuvenating the Ganga River.
National Water Policy: Advocates rainwater harvesting & conservation.
Aquifer Mapping Programme: Maps underground water to guide sustainable extraction.

Way forward

Community led efforts: Bring back old water systems like Ahar & support community led efforts like Swajal to manage water better.
Nature-Based Solutions: Restore wetlands, forests and create artificial floodplains to boost water retention.
Leverage Technology: Use real-time monitoring tools & AI-based systems (e.g., Andhra Pradesh’s water dashboard) for efficient water tracking & quality control.
Policy Reforms: Enforce mandatory rainwater harvesting & greywater recycling, scale up desalination in coastal regions as energy becomes cheaper.
Institutional Overhaul (Mihir Shah Committee): Merge key water agencies into a National Water Commission, shift focus to dam maintenance & promote integrated water governance.
Community Involvement: Engage local stakeholders in planning & decision-making to ensure sustainable water management at the grassroots.

{GS2 – IR – USA} U.S. Withdraws AI Diffusion Framework

Context (TH): The USA has withdrawn its controversial AI Diffusion Framework, a set of export controls aimed at limiting the global spread of advanced Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology.

What Was the AI Diffusion Framework?

Introduced in early 2025, the AI Diffusion Framework imposed export controls on AI chips and model weights, treating AI like nuclear tech.
It restricted access for adversaries like China and Russia, favouring trusted allies.
The aim was to preserve U.S. AI dominance by limiting access to high-compute infrastructure.

Its Implications

Ally Backlash: The framework was seen as overreach, pushing partners to pursue AI self-reliance.
Flawed Classification: Treating AI as military tech ignored its civilian, collaborative roots.
Counterproductive Innovation: Export curbs drove innovation in restricted nations e.g., China’s DeepSeek R1.

AI Controls After Framework Withdrawal

While the formal framework has been withdrawn, U.S. strategy remains unchanged, now pivoting to technology-driven controls.
Key Developments:
- Expanded export controls on AI chips (March 2025).
- Blacklist additions to restrict business with specific Chinese entities.
- Proposed hardware-level control features, such as built-in usage monitoring, functionality restrictions, location tracking of chips.

Implications for India

Short-Term Relief: India was not favourably positioned under the original Framework, and its withdrawal opens more room for bilateral tech cooperation.
Strategic Autonomy: Emphasises the importance of domestic chip production (e.g., Digital India Semicon Mission, IndiaAI Mission.), an independent AI stack, and open-source development.
Diversified Partnerships: India should deepen ties with Europe, Japan, and ASEAN to reduce strategic dependence and strengthen global AI cooperation.

{GS2 – Vulnerable Sections – Children} Child Labour in India

Context (IE): A recent report by Centre for Legal Action and Behaviour Change (C-LAB), in partnership with the Just Rights for Children (JRC) network , highlights both progress and persistent gaps in tackling child labour in India.

Despite being a signatory to ILO Convention 182, which mandates eliminating the worst forms of child labour, India continues to struggle with widespread exploitation in hazardous and abusive sectors.

Key Findings of the Report

Widespread Rescues: Between April 2024 and March 2025, over 53,000 children were rescued from child labour across 24 states and union territories.
- Telangana led with 11,063 rescues, followed by Bihar (3,974), Rajasthan (3,847), Uttar Pradesh (3,804), and Delhi (2,588).
Alarming Trends: Nearly 90% of rescued children aged 10–14 were found working in sectors considered among the worst forms of child labour, including spas, massage parlours, and orchestras all of which pose serious risks to the health and dignity of children.
Legal Action: A total of 38,388 FIRs were filed and 5,809 arrests were made, with 85% of arrests directly linked to child labour offences.

Challenges in Combating Child Labour

Economic Pressure: Economic hardship forces families to depend on children’s income, especially in rural and informal sectors.
Enforcement-Rescue Mismatch: States like Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh report high rescue numbers but low arrests, indicating weak legal follow-up and poor enforcement of child labour laws.
Gap in Accountability: Persistently low arrest rates in high-rescue states reveal a lack of accountability mechanisms for enforcement agencies and local authorities.
Migration and Trafficking: Migrant children often fall through the cracks due to lack of documentation, making them highly vulnerable to exploitation and trafficking.

Model State Action Plans

The Ministry of Labour & Employment has circulated model plans to help states strengthen enforcement, rescue, and rehabilitation efforts.
SAFAL (Support for Action Against Child Labour) focuses on boosting law enforcement and community-based monitoring.
The National Policy on Child Labour (1987) emphasizes rehabilitation, welfare scheme convergence, and targeted interventions in high-incidence areas.
The National Child Labour Project (NCLP) provides bridge education, training, meals, and stipends for rescued children, now integrated into the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan for formal school inclusion.

Key Recommendations

Strengthen Legal Action and Prosecution

Treat child labour as a cognizable and serious offence under the law.
Establish fast-track courts and improve prosecution rates to ensure time-bound justice.

Launch a National Mission to End Child Labour

The report calls for the launch of a National Mission to End Child Labour, creation of district-level task forces, and stronger NGO-law enforcement coordination for effective prosecution and rehabilitation.
Integrate this mission with existing government schemes on education, skill development, and social protection.

Establish a Child Labour Rehabilitation Fund

Provide financial support for rescued children to ensure education, nutrition, and skill training.
Prevent relapse into child labour due to economic vulnerability.

Ensure Education and Rehabilitation

Enforce free and compulsory education up to 18 years to reduce school dropouts.
Expand bridge courses and vocational training for adolescents who are past school age.
Build linkages with Skill India and PMKVY for sustainable reintegration.

Comprehensive Policy and Systemic Reforms

Enforce zero-tolerance policy for use of child labour in government procurement.
Formulate state-specific child labour policies tailored to local challenges.
Extend India’s commitment to Sustainable Development Goal 8.7 (eradicate child labour in all forms) to the 2030 deadline.

{GS2 – Vulnerable Sections – Women} Children & Armed Conflict Report

Context (TH): The UN’s 2025 Annual Report on Children & Armed Conflict reveals violence against children in armed conflict reached unprecedented levels in 2024.

Children and Armed Conflict Report

Prepared by the Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General, the report tracks grave violations against children in conflict areas.
It advocates global action & monitors abuses like recruitment, killing, maiming, abduction, sexual violence & attacks on schools & hospitals.
First initiated in 1997, the report is presented annually to UN General Assembly & Human Rights Council.

Report Findings

Rise in Violations: 2024 saw a 25% increase in grave violation from 2023 of children affected by killing, recruitment, sexual violence & abductions.
Common Violations: The leading abuses included killing/maiming, recruitment and denial of humanitarian access.
Gender Impact: Girls made up 1 in 3 victims, with sexual violence cases rising by 35% & 3,018 children were detained for links to armed groups.
Worst-hit Regions: The most violations were reported in Gaza & the West Bank, DRC, Somalia, Nigeria & Haiti, with massive spikes in Haiti (490%) & Lebanon (545%).

Impact of Conflict on Children

Psychological Trauma: Children in conflict zones often suffer from anxiety, depression & PTSD due to exposure to violence.
Disrupted Education: Wars & displacement interrupt schooling, damaging long-term academic & career prospects.
Recruitment & Abuse: Armed groups forcibly recruit children as soldiers or support staff, while girls are particularly vulnerable to sexual exploitation & trafficking.
Behavioural Impact: Many children develop feelings of revenge or show defiance toward societal norms due to trauma & instability.
Gendered Vulnerabilities: Boys face higher rates of recruitment & physical harm, girls are disproportionately affected by conflict-related sexual violence.

Initiatives to Protect Children’s Rights

Indian initiatives

Infrastructure: Child Welfare Committees, Juvenile Justice Boards & Care Homes established under Juvenile Justice Act, 2015.
Legal Action: Implementation of POCSO Act & training security forces on child protection, ban on pellet guns in J&K.
International Commitments: India complies with the Geneva Conventions protocols & Rome Statute obligations.

Global Initiatives

UN Campaigns: “Prove It Matters” promotes children’s participation & rights awareness.
Action Plans: 22 action plans implemented, major releases of child soldiers & reintegration support in countries like Syria, Congo & Afghanistan.
Legal Frameworks: Emphasis on the CRC, Safe Schools Declaration, Paris Principles & Ottawa Convention.
Capacity Building: Training for armed forces (Somalia, Nigeria, Mozambique) & reforms in child justice systems (Mali, Haiti, CAR).

Way Forward

Trauma-Informed Justice: Legal and protection systems must address the psychological impact of conflict and focus on child reintegration.
Civil Society Role: Strengthen the role of child-led groups, civil society, and rights education to empower and protect children.
INSPIRE Strategy (WHO): Enforce child protection laws, promote gender equality, support families, ensure safe spaces, and improve access to education and services.
Economic Support: Provide financial stability, access to healthcare & psychosocial support for affected children and families.

{GS3 – Envi – CC} India Leads Push on Climate Finance Commitments

Context (IE): At the ongoing climate negotiations in Bonn, Germany, India has emerged as a key voice for the Global South, reviving international attention on the unfinished and unmet obligations of developed nations regarding climate finance.

Background of The Finance Dispute

COP29 Commitment (2023, Baku): Developed nations agreed to mobilise at least USD 300 billion annually from 2035 a threefold increase from the earlier USD 100 billion target.
Gap in Required Funding: Developing countries estimate they need USD 1.3 trillion per year to meet their climate goals, making the committed amount grossly insufficient.
“Mobilisation” vs “Provision”: The commitment focuses on mobilising funds through private and indirect means rather than providing public finance.
- Developing countries see this as a deliberate evasion of Article 9 of the Paris Agreement, which mandates direct provision of climate finance by developed nations.

India Leads Pushback at Bonn

Demand for Agenda Clarity: India, backed by the G77 and other developing blocs, called for a dedicated agenda item to discuss Article 9.1 of the Paris Agreement requiring developed nations to provide financial resources to developing countries.
Standoff and Compromise: Developed nations strongly opposed the demand, causing a temporary halt in talks, which was later resolved through a formal consultation as a middle ground.
India’s Firm Stand: During the consultation, India and its allies firmly stated that climate finance is not charity, but a legal and moral obligation under both Article 9.1 of the Paris Agreement & Article 4.3 of the UNFCCC.

Legal Framework for Climate Finance

Article 9.1 of the Paris Agreement: Mandates that developed countries “shall provide financial resources to assist developing country Parties” with respect to mitigation and adaptation.
Article 9.3 of the Paris Agreement: Calls on developed countries to take the lead in mobilising climate finance, a separate but related requirement.
Article 4.3 of the UNFCCC (1992): Compels developed nations to provide “new and additional financial resources” to meet the “agreed full costs” incurred by developing countries in their climate actions.

Need for Climate Finance

Equity and Justice: Developing countries have historically contributed the least to global emissions but face the most severe climate impacts.
Implementation Gap: Climate targets and Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) are meaningless without adequate and predictable finance.
Erosion of Trust: Repeated failures to deliver on past commitments, including the unmet USD 100 billion/year promise, have dented trust in global climate governance.

Way Forward

Strategic Shift: India’s approach marks a transition from passive recipient to agenda-setter and coalition leader, signalling a long-term shift in global climate negotiations.
COP30 in Focus: The Bonn outcomes will be compiled into a report and presented at COP30 in Belem, Brazil (late 2025).
Climate Finance as Litmus Test: Going forward, climate finance will serve as a benchmark for assessing the credibility and fairness of global climate cooperation.

{GS3 – Envi – PA} Kerala Gets First Butterfly Sanctuary

Context (TBI): Kerala’s Aralam WLS was declared India’s first butterfly sanctuary. It is now India’s first protected forest dedicated to butterflies.

Location: On the western slopes of the Western Ghats of Northern Kerala. It is contiguous with Brahmagiri WLS (Karnataka), Wayanad slopes, Coorg forests, & Nagarhole Tiger Reserve lies to its east.
Highest peak: Katti Betta.
Forest types: Tropical evergreen, semi-evergreen and moist deciduous.
Fauna: Elephants, tigers, panthers, Nilgiri langurs, Malabar giant squirrels and over 266 butterfly species.

Significance

Ecological Role: Butterflies are vital pollinators and bioindicators, often neglected in conservation.
Biodiversity: Aralam hosts ~80% of Kerala’s butterfly species, including endangered and endemic ones.
Seasonal Migration: Aralam witnesses a major butterfly migration, attracting researchers and tourists.
Protection Needed: Habitat loss and climate change threaten insect populations in Aralam.

{GS3 – Infra – Energy} Electricity Futures

Context (TH): The National Stock Exchange (NSE) is set to launch a new security called “Electricity Futures” to hedge losses due to electricity price fluctuations.
In the initial stage, monthly settled electricity will be introduced on the NSE platform. NSE has plans to launch quarterly and annual contracts at a later stage.
Electricity futures are financial contracts that enable buyers and sellers to secure the price of electricity for a future date.
These standardised agreements are traded on exchanges and are primarily used to hedge against price volatility in the electricity market.

What is Hedging?

Hedging is a risk management strategy that helps protect against potential losses from adverse price movements. It functions like insurance, reducing the impact of market volatility.
One standard hedging tool is a futures contract, which is an agreement to buy or sell an asset at a set price on a future date.
By using futures, investors can lock in prices and take offsetting positions, providing a safeguard against unpredictable market shifts.

{GS3 – Infra – Initiatives} Banakacherla Project

Context (IE): The construction of the Banakacherla Reservoir is emerging as a major flashpoint between the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

The Banakacherla Project, also known as the Godavari–Banakacherla Link Project, is a major intra-state river-linking initiative undertaken by the state of Andhra Pradesh.
It aims to divert surplus Godavari River water to the Penna River basin via the Krishna River, thereby enhancing irrigation and drinking water supplies in drought-prone regions.
As part of the project, large reservoirs are proposed at Bollapalli (Guntur district) and Banakacherla (Nandyal district). These would facilitate the expansion of the Polavaram irrigation system, enabling the diversion of Godavari waters deep into Rayalaseema and the southern coastal areas of Andhra.
The project is expected to benefit around 80 lakh people by providing drinking water and irrigating ~7.5 lakh acres of farmland.

Telangana’s Objections

Exceeding Water Allocation: Andhra Pradesh may end up using more water than its legally allocated share from the Krishna River.
Violation of Legal Frameworks: It violates the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, due to a lack of inter-state consultation and regulatory approvals, as well as the Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal Award (1980).
Impact on Telangana Projects: Diverting Godavari waters to Banakacherla could deprive the state of its fair share, potentially affecting both ongoing and planned irrigation projects.

Penna River

It is a seasonal river that flows in two streams, in both North and South directions, forming the shape of a bow, hence its name, Pinakini.
- The name Pinakini refers to Pinaka, the bow of Nandhiswara, the presiding deity of Nandi hills.
Origin: The Penna rises in the Nandi Hills in Chikkaballapur District of Karnataka.
Basin states: It flows through the states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Length: 597 kilometres | Empties into: Bay of Bengal.

Read More> Godavari and Krishna Rivers System.

{GS3 – S&T – BioTech} Epigenetic Programming

Context (IE): Fertile mice were created from two male parents by mimicking maternal imprinting patterns through epigenetic changes.

Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression that occur without alterations to the underlying DNA sequence.

What is Epigenetic Programming?

Epigenetic programming is the controlled alteration of gene expression through epigenetic marks.
Epigenetic marks are chemical changes that regulate gene expression without altering the DNA sequence.
Benefits: Non-invasive, reversible in nature, personalised medicine.
Limitations: Low success rate, high input (eggs/embroys) requirement.

Potential Applications

Reproductive medicine: Useful in infertility and same-sex reproduction research.
Disease research: Helps treat epigenetic disorders like Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes.
Regenerative medicine: Reprogrammes cells for tissue repair (e.g., heart).
Agricultural biotech: Improves crop resilience and livestock traits.

Genomic Imprinting

Genomic imprinting is a parent-specific gene expression process regulated by DNA methylation.
- Only one parental allele is expressed, unlike Mendelian inheritance, where both are usually active.
Paternal imprinting: Silences the gene inherited from the father, allowing only the maternal allele to be expressed.
Maternal imprinting: Silences the gene inherited from the mother, allowing only the paternal allele to be expressed.

Allele: A gene variant inherited from each parent; imprinting regulates which allele is expressed.

{Prelims – In News} Creatine

Context (TH): Creatine, a compound that enhances muscle energy, is increasingly used in supplements for sports performance. It is approved for use by the International Olympic Committee.

Creatine is a nitrogenous compound that helps regenerate ATP during high-intensity activities.
It is synthesised in the liver, kidneys, and pancreas from certain amino acids.
It is stored mainly in skeletal muscles as phosphocreatine, which donates phosphate to regenerate ATP.
About 50% of creatine is produced endogenously; the remaining 50% comes from dietary intake.
It is not a steroid and does not harm healthy kidneys when taken in recommended amounts.
Dietary Source: Meat, fish, eggs, dairy, legumes, quinoa, nuts, and seeds.
Not Recommended For: People with kidney/liver disease, pregnant women, adolescents, or individuals with bipolar disorder.

Functions of Creatine

Muscle Recovery: Activates satellite cells that help repair muscle micro-tears post-exercise.
Hydration Role: Enhances cellular water content, improving muscle hydration and reducing cramping.
Hormonal Effect: May influence anabolic hormones such as insulin and growth hormone.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): The primary cellular energy molecule; ATP fuels muscular contractions during short, high-intensity activity.
Satellite Cells: Muscle stem cells that activate after stress or injury to aid repair and promote growth.
Anabolic Hormones: Growth-promoting hormones that stimulate protein synthesis and muscle development.

Potential Benefits Beyond Sports

Diabetes: May support glucose regulation, especially when combined with exercise.
Cognition: May improve memory and mental performance in older adults or those under fatigue.
Neurological Health: Supports brain ATP metabolism, with potential in neurological disorders.
Cardiac Health: Enhances energy supply to cardiac muscles, aiding recovery after ischemia.
Pancreatic Support: Contributes to energy balance in pancreatic function.

{Prelims – In News} CRISPR Technology – dCas9

Context (PIB): Researchers found that a modified version of CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats), called dCas9, helps solanaceous plants, such as tomatoes and potatoes, cope with environmental stresses like heat and pathogens.

Unlike traditional CRISPR systems that cut DNA, dCas9 functions as a gene switch. It does not alter the DNA permanently but instead turns specific genes on or off in response to stress. This switch remains inactive until triggered by environmental conditions.
To develop the dCas9, researchers used a small piece of a natural protein called NACMTF3, which is found in the biology of the tomato.
The team also targeted two “heat helper” genes, NAC2 and HSFA6b, which helped the tomato plants remain green, retain more water and stay healthy despite the heat.

Significance

It boosts a plant’s natural defence only when needed, saving energy and improving resilience.
This technology could extend beyond tomatoes and potatoes to benefit eggplants, chillies, and other essential food crops, moving us closer to a future of more innovative, climate-resilient agriculture.

{Prelims – PIN India} Neolithic Paintings in Ganagavathi

Context (TOI): Neolithic paintings, cup-marked stones, and a 17th-century inscription were found in Gangavathi, Karnataka.
The 17th-century Kannada inscription featured motifs of the sun, moon, bow, and arrow.
The cave ceiling features multiple drawings made using red pigment, depicting human figures, symbols, and scenes of men and women standing hand-in-hand, a form of early human symbolic communication.
Additionally, cup marks were discovered that made a sound when struck.

Hire Benakal

Hire Benakal is ~10 km from Gangavathi and showcases the region’s archaeological heritage.
Largest Necropolis: Site features ~1,000 dolmens over 20 ha; largest in India.
Megalithic Forms: Includes capstone dolmens, cairns, menhirs, and pit-circles.
Hire Benakal Type: Port-holed dolmens named after the site; holes used for ritual offerings.
Echo Feature: A ringing stone echoes 1 km, likely used in rituals or alerts.
UNESCO Status: Listed in India’s UNESCO Tentative List.

{Prelims – Sci – Bio} Candida tropicalis

Context (TH): Azole-related fungicide called tebuconazole, widely used by farmers and gardeners, has driven the increase in Candida tropicalis infections.

Candida tropicalis is a fungal yeast species from the Candida genus, mainly found in India & globally.
It causes severe infections in people with weakened immunity (e.g., cancer patients, diabetics).
High mortality rate: 55–60%.
Habitat: Found in marine environments (seawater, sediments, mangroves, marine life), human gut, fruit surfaces, soil & various foods.
Becomes pathogenic especially in neutropenic individuals (low neutrophils) & those exposed to antibiotics or high sugar levels.
Nosocomial transmission (spreads between healthcare workers & patients) is common.