Current Affairs – June 13, 2025

{GS1 – Geo – PG – Water Resources} 3^rd UN Ocean Conference 2025

Context (IE | DTE): As the 3^rd UN Ocean Conference concluded, a look at the growing threat to oceans.

UN Ocean Conference 2025 (UNOC3)

Held in Nice, France. Host Countries: France and Costa Rica.
Theme: “Accelerating action and mobilising all actors to conserve and sustainably use the ocean.”
Objectives: Address governance, financing, scientific knowledge, and climate adaptation. Reinforce SDG 14: Life Below Water—focus on sustainable fisheries, pollution control, and marine conservation.

Outcomes of UNOC3

Blue NDC Challenge

Launched by: Brazil and France
It urges countries to incorporate ocean-focused climate measures into their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) ahead of the COP30 to the UNFCCC in Belem, Brazil.
- The deadline for the 3^rd set of NDCs for 2035 was February 10, 2025. Only 21 countries of the 195 parties have made their submissions this year.
Australia, Fiji, Kenya, Mexico, Palau, and Seychelles have already joined the initiative, committing to including ocean-focused climate action in their updated NDCs.

NDCs are national climate plans that outline a country’s efforts to reduce emissions and adapt to climate change under the Paris Agreement adopted by 195 Parties at UNFCCC COP21 in Paris, France, 2015.

Nice Wake-up Call for an Ambitious Plastics Treaty

The “Nice Wake-Up Call” comes ahead of the next round of UN plastics treaty negotiations, INC-5.2, scheduled for August 5-14, 2025, in Geneva, Switzerland.
It is a powerful push for a strong, legally binding global plastics treaty, especially as negotiations have been challenging and have missed previous deadlines.
It identifies five crucial elements necessary for an effective Global Plastics Treaty.
1. The need for a global target to reduce the primary production of plastic polymers across the world.
2. Phasing out the most problematic plastic products and chemicals of concern.
3. Improving the design of plastic products.
4. Effective means of implementation and finance that are commensurate with the ambition and guided by the polluter pays principle.
5. An effective treaty that can evolve over time.
The Nice Wake-Up Call has 96 signatories and remains open for others to join.

India

India is not among the signatories of the ‘Nice Wake-Up Call’
Backed the swift ratification of the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement and advocated for a legally binding Global Plastics Treaty.
Launched ‘SAHAV’ digital ocean data portal, underscoring its leadership in global marine governance.

Significance of Oceans

Spatial Extent: Cover ~70% of Earth’s surface and hold 97% of its water, making them vital for climate regulation and the global water cycle.
Biological Role: Support 94% of life by volume and host ~1 million known species, including coral reefs and deep-sea ecosystems.
Climate Regulation: Absorb ~23% of CO₂ and >90% of excess heat, while phytoplankton generate over 50% of Earth’s oxygen.
Economic & Ecological Value: Provide fisheries, fuel reserves (e.g., Bombay High), and regulate monsoons; also protect coasts via mangroves and reefs.
Blue Economy: Contribute ~4% to India’s GDP; India’s 200-nautical-mile EEZ remains largely untapped but holds rich marine resources.

Threats to the Ocean

Ocean warming: Indian Ocean is heating faster than other major oceans, leading to intensified cyclones (e.g., Cyclone Fani, 2019) & frequent marine heatwaves triggering coral bleaching events.
- Ocean acidification due to increased CO₂ absorption threatens organisms like corals and shellfish.
Rising sea level threatens coastal cities like Mumbai & Kolkata with erosion, saltwater intrusion, and infrastructure loss.
Pollution: Around 8 million tonnes of plastic enter oceans annually, choking marine species & polluting ecosystems.
Overfishing: Nearly one-third of global fish stocks are overexploited, affecting long-term marine food chains and livelihoods.

Government Initiatives to Protect Ocean

Monitoring and Research

Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS): Provides real-time ocean data, marine heatwave alerts, and early warning systems.
IMD Forecasting: Tracks cyclones and issues timely alerts.
NDMA Cyclone Preparedness: Implements disaster management strategies for coastal areas.

INCOIS is an autonomous body under Ministry of Earth Sciences, headquartered in Hyderabad. Its mission is to provide ocean data, information, & advisory services through sustained observations & research.

Climate-Resilient Missions

Includes missions like the National Water Mission (NWM) and National Mission on Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE).

NWM: Key mission under National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), it aims to conserve water, reduce wastage, & ensure equitable distribution through integrated water resource management.
NMSHE: Also under NAPCC, it focuses on understanding climate impacts on the Himalayas, preserving glaciers, biodiversity, and traditional knowledge to safeguard ecosystem and water security.

Coastal Development & Protection

SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region): Enhances maritime security and regional cooperation.
Maritime India Vision 2030: Emphasizes sustainable port-led development and blue economy growth.
Odisha Model (Cyclone Fani): Casuarina plantation helped reduce cyclone damage, showcasing nature-based solutions.

Regional and Global Partnerships

IORA & BIMSTEC: Promote regional maritime cooperation and climate resilience.
Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI): Strengthens climate-proof infrastructure in coastal zones.

Way Forward

Launching National Coastal Mission to address climate change threats to coastal zones, mangroves, corals and promote better and sustainable use of marine resources.
Nature-Based Coastal Protection: Restore mangroves and build seawalls; e.g., Casuarina plantations by Odisha reduced Cyclone Fani impact.
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): Safeguard coral reefs and biodiversity; e.g., Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve supports over 4,000 marine species.
Invest in Blue Economy: Encourage PPP in sustainable fisheries, marine biotech; boost funding for marine science to reduce the knowledge gap.

{GS2 – IR – EU} ReArm Europe (Readiness 2030)

Context (IE): The EU’s “ReArm Europe” plan, rebranded as “Readiness 2030”, proposes investment in defense to reduce US dependency, deter Russia & build strategic autonomy.

Initiated in March 2025 by the European Union, the plan was initially named “ReArm Europe” & later rebranded as “Readiness 2030” to reflect a broader strategic focus on long-term defence preparedness.
Objectives: Aims to mobilize €800 billion by 2030 to build a self-reliant European defence industry and enhance EU defence preparedness for swift response to external threats like Russia’s aggression.

Impact on USA-Europe Relations

Robust EU defence capability enables independent global engagement, diverging from US priorities.
Threatens the US arms export market, previously dominant in Europe.
It introduces EU command structures that may overlap with NATO, raising concerns about duplication & reduced cohesion.

{GS2 – Vulnerable Sections – Women} Global Gender Gap Index 2025

Context (TH): The World Economic Forum (WEF) released the 19^th edition of the Global Gender Gap Index 2025 covering 148 economies.

The Global Gender Gap Index is an annual report (since 2016) produced by the WEF that measures gender-based gaps in access to resources and opportunities in countries around the world.
It measures gender parity across four key dimensions:
1. Economic participation and opportunity
2. Educational attainment
3. Health and survival
4. Political empowerment
It ranks countries on a scale from 0 to 1, with a score of 1 indicating that a country has achieved complete gender equality, while a score of 0 indicates a complete lack of equality.

Key Findings

Global Gender Gap: The global gender gap has closed to 68.8%, marking the strongest annual advancement since the COVID-19 pandemic. Yet full parity remains 123 years away at current rates.
The Health and Survival gender gap has closed by 96.2%, the Educational Attainment gap by 95.1%, the Economic Participation and Opportunity gap by 61.0%, & Political Empowerment gap by 22.9%.
Despite women representing 41.2% of the global workforce, a stark leadership gap persists with women holding only 28.8% of top leadership positions.
Ranking: Iceland leads the rankings for the 16^th year running, followed by Finland, Norway, the United Kingdom and New Zealand.
- Closing 92.6% of the gender gap, Iceland is the only economy to reach 90% parity.
South Asia: Bangladesh emerged as the best performer in South Asia, jumping 75 ranks to rank 24 globally. Nepal ranked 125, Sri Lanka 130, Bhutan 119, Maldives 138 and Pakistan 148.

India Specific Findings

Rank: India has ranked 131 out of 148 countries, slipping two places from its position last year.
- With a parity score of just 64.1%, India is among the lowest-ranked countries in South Asia.
Economic Participation and Opportunity: Score improves by +.9 percentage points to 40.7%.
- Parity in estimated earned income rises from 28.6% to 29.9%.
Educational Attainment: India scored 97.1%, reflecting positive shifts in female shares for literacy and tertiary education enrolment.

Credit: Indian Express

Political Empowerment: Female representation in Parliament falls from 14.7% to 13.8% in 2025, lowering the indicator score for the second year in a row below 2023 levels.
- Share of women in ministerial roles falls from 6.5% to 5.6%.
Health and Survival: India also records higher parity in health and survival, driven by improved scores in sex ratio at birth and in healthy life expectancy.

{GS3 – Envi – Species} AviList: 1^st checklist of bird species

Context (DTE): AviList is the global bird checklist standardizing over 11,000 species.

AviList is the first-ever unified global checklist of bird species.
Covers 11,131 species, 19,879 subspecies, 2,376 genera, 252 families & 46 orders.
Developed by: Working Group on Avian Checklists, comprising BirdLife International, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Avibase, AOU & IOU.
It replaces existing lists such as the IOC & Clements Checklists, creating one global standard.

American Ornithological Union (AOU): A leading scientific society in North America focused on advancing the study & conservation of birds.
International Ornithological Union (IOU): A global organization promoting international collaboration in ornithological research & knowledge exchange.
International Ornithological Committee (IOC): A global body that maintains the IOC World Bird List, a standardized & widely used taxonomy of bird species.

Significance

Standardization: Ends confusion caused by multiple bird taxonomies by offering a single reference.
Conservation Impact: Supports conservation planning & species prioritization.
Global Collaboration: Facilitates data sharing across research platforms like eBird & habitat studies.
Policy & Science Integration: Helps scientists, policymakers & conservationists speak the same taxonomic language.

{GS3 – IE – Employment} Mismatch between Industry & Academia

Context (TH): India faces a growing disconnect between academic education and the skills demanded by the job market, risking its demographic dividend.

Status of Unemployment in India

Unemployment rate in India stands at 3.2% in 2022–23 (6.1% in 2017–18). (PLFS)
Unemployment rate among graduates is 13% in 2022–23.
Share of graduates in India’s labour force stands at 15% in 2022–23. Nearly 1 in 8 graduates remains unemployed.
Only 46% of Indian graduates are employable due to soft skill gaps (India Skills Report, 2024)

Factors Responsible for Mismatch

Outdated Curriculum: Most universities revise syllabi every 5–10 years. Critical skills in AI, data science, green energy & fintech are absent from core courses.
Rigid Governance Structure: Regulatory bodies like UGC/AICTE/NAAC create bureaucratic hurdles, limiting academic innovation & autonomy.
- E.g. Only 20 Institutes of Eminence (IoEs) have full curriculum autonomy out of 45,000+ institutions.
Weak Industry Collaboration: Over 70% of Indian colleges lack formal MoUs with industries, leading to poor exposure to real-world applications.
- Only 36% of students had internship experience before graduation.
Degree-Focused Education: Focus remains on rote learning and exam scores over skills like critical thinking or innovation.
Untrained Faculty: A 2022 AICTE audit revealed that 40% of engineering faculty lack hands-on industry experience or exposure to modern digital tools.
Low Transition to Emerging Fields: Despite 90 lakh new jobs projected in digital sectors by 2030, only <20% of students are pursuing these fields.

Government Initiatives

Scheme for Promotion of Academic and Research Collaboration (SPARC): Promotes joint research with top global universities in frontier science and technology areas.
Education Quality Upgradation and Inclusion Programme (EQUIP): A 5-year vision plan to overhaul higher education by enhancing access, equity, quality, and graduate employability.
Technical Education Quality Improvement Programme (TEQIP): A World Bank supported project to strengthen engineering institutions via infrastructure, faculty development, and accreditation.
Institutes of Eminence (IoE): Grants autonomy and ₹1,000 crore funding to 10 public institutions for global competitiveness in research and innovation.
National Education Alliance for Technology (NEAT): Uses AI-driven edtech platforms to offer personalized, industry-aligned learning content to students.

Measures to Address the Mismatch

Curriculum Updates: Revise curricula annually with industry inputs. E.g. AICTE’s 2023 syllabus revision included AI, ML & data science modules.
Pan-India Model ITI Strategy: Scale up from the current 305 Model ITIs to a nationwide standard. Use CSR funds for ITI upgrades, faculty training, and apprenticeships.
Industry-Academia Linkages: Set up joint curriculum boards, promote internships and live projects. IIT Madras collaborates with companies like TCS for real-world problem solving.
Technology Integration: Deploy smart classrooms, virtual labs, simulations. NEAT brought AI-based platforms like GUVI and upGrad to over 12 lakh learners.
Feedback Systems: Gather employer feedback on alumni performance to improve pedagogy. National Employability Report used by some universities for course redesign.

{GS3 – IE – Securities} SEBI’s Verified UPI Framework and SEBI Check Tool

Context (IE): To address the rising threat of digital payment fraud in capital markets, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) will implement a Verified UPI Framework and SEBI Check tool.
Objective: Prevent fund diversion by fake/unregistered entities; strengthen real-time digital payment security; reduce reliance on name-based verification prone to impersonation; and boost investor trust in digital transactions.
Key Features of SEBI’s Verified UPI Framework:
- Mandatory for SEBI-registered intermediaries (stock brokers, mutual funds, RIA, merchant bankers).
- Verified UPI IDs to follow a uniform format: abc.bkr@validhdfc; abc: intermediary name/code; .bkr: category suffix (.mf – mutual fund, .ria – RIA, etc.); and @validbank: verified bank identifier.
- Issued & verified by NPCI (National Payments Corporation of India).
- Visual cue: Verified handles will display a green triangle with thumbs-up icon during transactions.
- Transitional period: Existing UPI handles are valid till Dec 11, 2026; after that, only “@valid” UPI IDs are allowed.
SEBI Check Tool:
- Digital tool for investors to verify UPI IDs before payment.
- Verification modes scan QR code, manual UPI ID entry, and confirm intermediary’s name, bank account number, and IFSC code.

Compliance & Investor Awareness

Mandatory for intermediaries: Use only verified UPI IDs and display them clearly on websites, apps, and communication.
For investors: May continue using traditional payment modes (NEFT, RTGS, IMPS, cheques), and UPI users advised to verify via SEBI Check. Existing Systematic Investment Plans (SIPs) and standing instructions will continue with old UPI IDs until the final cut-off.

Significance: Introduces structured, verified payment identities in capital markets; reduces impersonation and phishing scams; empowers investors through real-time “Know Your Payee” (KYP) tools.

{GS3 – Infra – Initiatives} Hortoki-Sairang line

Context (IE): The Commission of Railway Safety (CRS) has cleared the final Hortoki–Sairang section, enabling rail connectivity to Aizawl, Mizoram’s capital, for the first time.

Credits: IE

The Commission of Railway Safety (CRS) is a statutory body under the Ministry of Civil Aviation. It is governed by the Railways Act of 1989 and headed by the Chief Commissioner of Railway Safety.
It inspects and approves new railway lines, investigates serious train accidents, and conducts safety audits. Final clearance from the CRS is mandatory before opening any new railway section to the public.

The 51.38 km Bairabi–Sairang rail line features 48 tunnels (12.8 km total) and 55 major bridges; Bridge No. 196 is 104 metres tall—higher than the Qutub Minar.
The route is divided into four parts: Bairabi–Hortoki, Hortoki–Kawnpui, Kawnpui–Mualkhang, and Mualkhang–Sairang.
The last stretch (Hortoki–Sairang, 33.86 km) connects Aizawl (about 20 km from Sairang) to the Indian Railways network for the first time.

Mizoram indeed becomes the fourth northeastern state—after Assam (Guwahati), Tripura (Agartala), and Arunachal Pradesh (Itanagar/Naharlagun)—to have its capital directly connected to the national railway network.

{GS3 – S&T – Defence} Drones as the New Face of Warfare

Context (TH | IE): Ukraine’s Operation Spider’s Web & India’s Operation Sindoor highlight the growing role of drone swarms in modern warfare.

What are Drones?

Drones, also known as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), are aircraft that operate without an onboard human pilot.
They are either remotely piloted by operators from the ground or autonomously driven by onboard AI and GPS systems.
Primary Functions:
- Surveillance: Real-time intelligence gathering over hostile or inaccessible terrains.
- Combat Operations: Precision strikes without risking human soldiers.
- Logistics: Delivering supplies in combat or disaster zones.
- Electronic Warfare: Disrupting enemy radar or communication systems.

Types of Drones

Surveillance Drones: Used for monitoring enemy activity, border surveillance & target acquisition, equipped with EO/IR sensors & real-time video feed. E.g. Heron (Israel) used by Indian Army over LAC.
Combat Drones (UCAVs): Armed drones for precision strikes with no pilot risk & high accuracy. E.g. MQ-9 Reaper (USA) used to eliminate Qassem Soleimani in 2020.
Loitering Munitions (“Kamikaze Drones”): Hover over target areas before crashing with explosives; combine surveillance and attack. E.g. Harpy (Israel) used by Azerbaijan in Nagorno-Karabakh.
Swarm Drones: AI-coordinated clusters of small drones that overwhelm enemy defences by saturating radars. E.g. Used by Russia in Ukraine to defeat layered air defence systems.
Nano/Micro Drones: Ultra-small drones for urban warfare, tactical surveillance & building clearance, portable & stealthy. E.g. Black Hornet (UK/NATO) used for real-time intelligence.

Use of Drones

Military Edge: Reduces risk to personnel, enhances precision in operations (in Operation Sindoor).
Border Surveillance: Deployed on LAC & LoC for real-time ISR using Heron, Searcher drones.
Agriculture & Mapping: Used for crop monitoring, land digitization under SVAMITVA & Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme ((DILRMP).
Disaster Response: Employed for supply drops, damage assessment during floods & earthquakes.
Counter-Drone Defence: India uses Integrated Air Command and Control System (IACCS), S-400, Akash & MR-SAMs, both soft-kill (jamming) & hard-kill.

IACCS is an automated air defence network developed by Indian Air Force to integrate sensors, weapons, & command centers for real-time tracking & neutralization of aerial threats, including drones & missiles

How have drones been used in modern warfare?

Surveillance & Reconnaissance: Drones provide real-time intelligence, helping identify enemy positions and monitor movements with precision.
Precision Strikes: Loitering munitions strike with high accuracy and can hover before hitting targets, reducing collateral damage. E.g. India’s Nagastra‑1.
Swarming & Autonomous Operations: AI-enabled drone swarms can overwhelm air defenses, autonomously coordinate, adapt mid-mission, and enable new strategic tactics. E.g. Ukraine’s “Spider’s Web” operation—117 AI-guided FPV drones striking Russian airbases deep behind enemy lines.
Asymmetric Power Shift: Even smaller or less-equipped forces can challenge conventional militaries using drones tactically. E.g. Houthi rebels.
Artelliary coordination: Drones act as spotters for artillery and missile strikes, providing immediate adjustments and feedback for greater accuracy.

Drone Technology in India

India’s 2021 Drone Rules liberalized drone operations followed by the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme with ₹120 crore allocation to boost domestic drone manufacturing.
Over 300 drone startups registered under DPIIT, IdeaForge, Garuda Aerospace & Solar Industries.

iDEX (Innovations for Defence Excellence) is a Ministry of Defence initiative launched in 2018 to promote innovation & support defence startups and MSMEs through funding, procurement support, and collaboration with the armed forces.

Government Initiatives

Make in India Initiative: Drones are included under Make in India to boost local manufacturing and reduce import dependency.
PLI Scheme for Drones: It offers up to 20% incentive on drone & component production.
Drone (Amendment) Rules 2022: It simplified compliance by removing licensing for micro & nano drones used non-commercially.
Digital Sky Platform: Centralised digital portal for drone registration, airspace permission & monitoring.
Drone Shakti Scheme (Budget 2022–23): Announced to promote Drone-as-a-Service (DaaS) through startups for sectors like agriculture, mining & logistics.
Agricultural Drone SOPs: Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) guide the safe use of drones in crop spraying & soil health monitoring. E.g Drone Didi.

Indigenous Drone

Drone System	Developed By	Key Features
Abhyas	DRDO-ADE, Bengaluru	High-speed expendable aerial target for missile testing.
Ghatak / SWiFT	DRDO-ADE	Stealth UCAV for deep strike operations.
CATS Warrior	HAL + NewSpace R&D	AI-enabled swarm drone under CATS programme.
Rustom-1/2	DRDO-ADE	Long-endurance UAVs for ISR missions.
TAPAS BH-201	DRDO-ADE	Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE) UAV.
Imperial Eagle	DRDO + CSIR-NAL	Lightweight UAV for tactical ISR missions.
Lakshya	DRDO-ADE	Target drone used for weapon testing.
Netra V2	DRDO + IdeaForge	Mini-UAV for police, disaster management.
Nishant	DRDO-ADE	Tactical UAV for battlefield reconnaissance.
Golden Hawk & Pushpak	DRDO + CSIR-NAL	Trainers and utility drones in development pipeline.

India’s counter-drone technology

Akashteer: It integrates with the Indian Air Force’s integrated command network for real-time tracking.
Bhargavastra: Fires 64 micro-rockets in salvos to eliminate drone swarms.
DRDO’s Anti-Drone System: Offers 360-degree radar coverage, with both jamming (soft kill) and laser (hard kill) capabilities. Drones can be detected up to 4 km away, and neutralised within a 1 km radius.
Indrajaal: An AI-powered grid from Hyderabad startup that combines jammers, spoofers, and intelligence to protect areas up to 4,000 sq km. Already deployed at naval sites in Gujarat and Karnataka.

Challenges

Procurement Gaps: Delayed orders and lack of scale discourage domestic innovation; only ~1% global drone exports (WTO).
Vulnerability: Enemy states use GPS jamming & radio spoofing to disable drones (seen in Ukraine war).
Limited R&D: India’s R&D in UAV tech is <0.7% of GDP vs. 4% in South Korea (UNESCO Science Report).
Civilian Misuse: Easy access allows misuse by non-state actors for smuggling and IED attacks.
Production Bottlenecks: Lack of rapid manufacturing & 3D-printing capacity.

Way Forward

Integrated Systems: Expand IACCS with radar-drone sensor fusion & anti-drone layers. Use jammers, DEWs & net-based defences.
Counter-Drone Ecosystem: Develop integrated radar-jammer systems, promote indigenous anti-drone tech via BEL, DRDO.
Domestic Industry: Simplify drone import norms, support startups through iDEX & DRONE SHAKTI.
EW-Resistant Design: Invest in AI navigation, terrain mapping, encrypted comms to withstand electronic attacks.
Training & Regulation: Equip CAPFs with drone defence tools, enforce strict norms on civilian drone use and imports.
International Collaboration: Partner with Israel, US for drone AI, loitering munition tech & joint R&D.

Read also> Counter Drone System

{Prelims – In News} Black Box

Context (IE): An Air India flight crashed in Ahmedabad shortly after takeoff; the retrieval of black boxes is crucial to determine the cause of the crash.

Credit: wa

A black box is an electronic flight recording device installed in aircraft to help investigators determine the cause of a crash or technical failure. Painted bright orange or yellow.
It reconstructs the sequence of events leading to an accident, enhancing safety and accountability.
Mandatory in all commercial aircraft since 1967 to improve air safety standards.
Components of Black Boxes:
- Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR): Records cockpit audio, including pilot conversations, engine sounds, alarms, and radio transmissions.
- Flight Data Recorder (FDR): Captures over 80 parameters such as altitude, airspeed, flight heading, vertical acceleration, pitch, roll, autopilot settings, and engine performance.
Features: Constructed using titanium or steel and insulated to withstand extreme heat, fire, high-speed impact, and deep-sea pressure.
- Located near the tail section of the aircraft, where the chance of survival during crashes is higher.
- Equipped with an ultrasonic beacon that emits signals for up to 30 days to aid underwater recovery.

Black boxes were invented in the early 1950s by Dr. David Warren, inspired by early jetliner crashes, such as the de Havilland Comet. Australia was the first country to make black boxes mandatory in 1963; today, they are required on all commercial aircraft worldwide.

Significance: Essential for identifying both technical malfunctions and human errors in aviation accidents.

{Prelims – In News} Montreal Convention 1999 (MC99)

Context (IE): The insurance payout for passengers of Air India Boeing 787 Dreamliner (Air India’s crashed plane) should be governed by the Montreal Convention, 1999 (MC99).

The MC99 establishes a modern compensatory regime in respect of passengers who suffer death or injury caused by an accident during international carriage by air.
It was designed to replace the Warsaw Convention system that had developed haphazardly since 1929 with a single, modern and universal liability regime.
MC99 also establishes the legal framework that allows airlines to make use of electronic documentation for shipments, thereby reducing costs and increasing efficiency.
Signatories: MC99 entered in to force in 2003 and now has 132 Parties. This is equivalent to 68% of all International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) States. India became a signatory in 2009.
MC99 Liability Limits: Expressed in Special Drawing Rights (SDR). The value of the SDR is determined by the value of a basket of currencies important to the world’s trading and financial systems.
Under MC99 Carrier Liability is Limited to: SDR 113,100 for death or injury of passengers.
- To defend claims in excess of that amount, the carrier must show that the damage was not due to the negligence/wrongful act of the carrier or solely due to the negligence/wrongful act of another person.

{Prelims – S&T – Defence – Exercises} Exercise Shakti 2025

Context (TH): The 8^th edition of Exercise Shakti is to be held at La Cavalerie, France.

A biennial joint military exercise between India and France which is held alternately in both countries.
Purpose: Enhance joint military capability for multi-domain operations in sub-conventional scenarios.
Focus: Strengthening interoperability and tactical coordination in joint operations.
Significance: Deepens strategic defence ties and fosters bonhomie and mutual understanding between the two armies.