Current Affairs – November 07, 2024

{GS2 – IR – India-US} H-1B visa

• Context (IE): In the fiscal year 2023, Indians accounted for 72.3% of the total H-1B approvals. However, Chinese workers were in second place, receiving 11.7%.

Overview of the H-1B Visa Program

• It allows American employers to hire non-immigrant workers for speciality occupations requiring advanced skills enabling the temporary employment of foreign professionals (at least bachelor’s degree).
• H-1B visas are typically capped each year and allocated through a lottery system managed by the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS).
• Exemptions: Certain H-1B workers, such as those employed in higher education institutions, non-profits, or government research organisations, are exempt from the annual visa cap.
• Validity and Extensions: The visa is initially valid for three years, with a one-time extension option for an additional three years, making six years the general maximum duration.
• Lifetime Limit: There is no limit on the total number of H-1B visas an individual can hold over their lifetime, as long as each visa term follows standard application and approval procedures.
• Job change: H-1B holders can change employers but must reapply for a new visa. If a transfer application is denied, the individual could become “out of status,” potentially facing a re-entry bar of three to ten years unless the previous employer rehires them.
• Green Card: H-1B visa holders can apply for a Green Card (Lawful Permanent Residency) for themselves and eligible family members, allowing a path to longer-term residency.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – Comparison} US Presidential Elections

• Context (IE): Donald J Trump was elected the 47th president of the US defeating incumbent Vice President Kamala Harris.

• The US President is both the head of state and the head of government of the United States of America. In addition, S/he is the head of the executive branch of government and the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.
• Eligibility for US President:
  • Natural-born citizen of the country
  • 35 years of age or older
  • Resident of the U.S. for 14 years
• Tenure of US President: Four Years. In the US, a person can be the President for only two terms.

US Presidential Elections

• The two main parties (Democrats & Republicans) nominate a presidential candidate by holding a series of votes called state primaries and caucuses. Independent candidates, too, run for the post of President.
  • The Democrats are a liberal political party whose agenda is defined largely by its push for civil rights, a broad social safety net, and measures to address climate change.
  • The Republicans, known as the Grand Old Party, is a conservative political party. It advocates for lower taxes, shrinking the size of the government & tighter restrictions on immigration and abortion.
• US citizens who are aged 18 or over. Every state except North Dakota requires people to register before they can vote. U.S. votes for its President on the first Tuesday of November, every four years.

Election Process

Credits: LM

Primaries and Caucuses

• Primaries are State-level elections in which political parties select their presidential candidates. They are usually held 6-9 months before the general election, and voters choose their candidates anonymously through secret ballots.
• Caucuses are run by political parties. Here, party members select the “best candidate” through voting.

National Conventions

• National conventions are where parties select their presidential and vice-presidential candidates.
• State delegates confirm their choices through votes, and the person who gets the majority becomes the party’s presidential candidate. In case no candidate gets the majority, convention delegates participate in additional rounds of voting to choose a nominee.
• The chosen presidential candidate also announces their running mate – the vice-presidential candidate – at the national convention.

General Election

• Candidates of major political parties are listed on the ballot.
• Registered voters can participate in the general election even if they did not vote in the primary elections. They can also vote for any candidate, their registration with the party does not matter.

Electoral College

• The President is not elected through the votes cast by citizens but through the electoral college process.
• It consists of electors from each state who officially elect the President and Vice President.
• The number of electors from each state corresponds to its congressional representation (Senators and Representatives). A candidate must secure a majority of electoral votes (270) to win the presidency.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – Elections} Multi-Member Constituencies in India

• Context (IE): The multi-member constituency system in India ended after the 1957 elections.

• Multi-member constituencies are electoral districts with more than one representative elected.
• Purpose: Introduced after independence to enhance parliamentary representation of SCs and STs.
• Structure: Seats were reserved for SCs and STs based on population in specific areas. Both general and reserved category candidates (SC/ST) could contest in these constituencies.
• Voting Mechanism:
  • Voters have multiple votes depending on the number of available seats.
  • Example: If a constituency has a high population of SCs, it can be a two-member constituency with each party fielding a general and SC candidate.
  • Voters have two votes; the election is conducted as per the first-past-the-post system.
  • The two candidates with the maximum votes win, sending two members to the Lok Sabha.

Implementation of Multi-Member Constituencies

• The concept was first introduced during the general election of 1951-52.
• Out of 489 LS seats, 72 were reserved for SCs, with 71 structured as two-member constituencies.
• Additionally, 26 seats were reserved for STs: 10 were single-member constituencies, and 15 were two-member constituencies. North Bengal had a unique three-member constituency (one general candidate, one SC candidate, and one ST candidate).

Challenges to the Multi-Member System and its Subsequent Decline

• Unexpected Electoral Outcomes: In the 1957 elections, SC and ST candidates performed unexpectedly well, even winning constituencies traditionally held by general category candidates, which led to discontent among general category representatives.
• Community-Specific Dominance: Constituencies like Parvathipuram in Andhra Pradesh saw both seats won by ST candidates, sparking dissatisfaction among general category candidates who felt marginalized.
• Legal Disputes such as Congress candidate V.V. Giri challenging his loss in a two-member constituency, arguing that reserved category candidates had an unfair advantage.
• Supreme Court Ruling: ST candidates could legally contest both reserved and general seats within multi-member constituencies, validating their claims and complicating the system further.
• Two-Member Constituencies (Abolition) Act, 1961: To address legal, political, and social opposition, government abolished the multi-member constituency system aiming fairer representation.

Insights from Multi-Member Constituencies

• The multi-member system highlighted the challenge of ensuring marginalized representation while maintaining practical electoral processes.
• Upcoming Census and delimitation raise renewed focus on fair representation, especially with concerns from southern states over potential reductions in parliamentary seats.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – FRs} Right to Privacy (RoP)

• Context (IE): Justice KS Puttaswamy, a former judge of the Karnataka HC and petitioner in the ‘right to privacy case,’ passed away. He was also the part of Andhra Pradesh Backward Classes Commission.

• He challenged the constitutional validity of the Aadhaar, which led to the SC recognising the RoP under the fundamental right to life under Article 21 of IC.
• Government argued that RoP is part of common law but not a fundamental right. SC overruled the judgments in M P Sharma (1954) and Kharak Singh case to confer fundamental right status to RoP.
• SC has not defined RoP in explicit terms. Experts argue “Personal autonomy, freedom to make choices and the right to determine what happens with personal information” are three core elements of RoP.

Legal implications of judgement

• Strengthened constitutional framework: SC has explored principles of autonomy, dignity, and identity in relation to privacy to strengthen the framework of constitutional rights.
• Enhanced Immunity: Infusing a right with a constitutional element gives it “a sense of immunity from popular opinion and from legislative annulment”, which a common law right would not have.
• Subsequent expansion of RoP
  • Navtej Singh Johar case (2018): Decriminalisation of all sexual relations between consenting adults.
  • Shakti Vahini case (2018): Personal choices related to marriage are included within the ambit of privacy and dignity of an individual.
  • Joseph Shine case (2018): Decriminalisation of adultery emphasising on sexual privacy.
  • Common Cause case (2018): Reaffirmed the right to die with dignity in context of end-of-life care.

Global recognition to RoP

• Article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and Article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR, 1966) protect individuals from “arbitrary interference” with their privacy, family, home, correspondence, honour, and reputation.
• USA: The U.S. Constitution does not explicitly mention the right to privacy. Court interpretations and the Privacy Act of 1974 protect records and details of citizens.
• Sweden: The 1973 Data Act protected the privacy of personal data on computers. The right to protection of personal data is also found in the Swedish constitution.
• Canada: Privacy laws were made part of the Canadian Human Rights Act in 1977. In 1983, the law was expanded to include regulations on how the government can access and disclose personal information.
• EU: Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) provides a right to protection of one’s private and family life subject to certain restrictions. Also, the Data Protection Directive adopted by the EU in 1995 regulates the processing of personal data within the EU.

{GS2 – Social Sector – Education} PM-Vidyalaxmi Scheme

• Context (PIB | TH): PM-Vidyalaxmi scheme, a central sector scheme was approved recently.

Features of the Scheme

• Eligibility: Students securing admission in Higher educational institutions ranked within the top 100 in overall, category-specific, and domain-specific rankings in NIRF rankings.
• Collateral-Free Loans: Students will have access to collateral-free, guarantor-free education loans.
• Digital portal: The Department of Higher Education will administer the scheme through the unified “PM-Vidyalaxmi” portal. Also, Students can apply for education loans and interest subvention through this portal, with payments made via E-voucher and Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) wallets.
• Credit Guarantee: For loans up to ₹ 7.5 lakhs, the Government of India will provide a 75% credit guarantee to support banks in expanding coverage.
• Additionally, for students having an annual family income of up to ₹ 8 lakhs, and not eligible for benefits under any other government scholarship or interest subvention schemes, 3 percent interest subvention for loan up to ₹ 10 lakhs will also be provided during moratorium period.

{GS3 – Envi – RE} Asia – Pacific Climate Report 2024

• Context (PIB): Asian Development Bank’s (ADB) Asia–Pacific Climate Report highlights India’s strategic shift from heavy reliance on fossil fuel subsidies towards a focus on clean energy development.

• The report tackles urgent issues such as rising heatwaves, the socioeconomic impact of climate change, and the need for financial resources to protect vulnerable communities.

Key Findings on India’s Energy Transition

• Reduction in Subsidies: India’s “remove, target, and shift” strategy effectively reduced oil and gas sector subsidies by 85% from 2014 to 2018.
• Strategic Tax Measures: Introduced taxes, like the cess on coal production, redirected funds to renewable energy projects, supporting India’s transition to a cleaner energy economy.

Role of Taxation in Supporting Clean Energy Initiatives

• Allocation to Clean Energy: Approximately 30% of cess collections supported the National Clean Energy and Environment Fund, aiding key projects like the Green Energy Corridor and the National Solar Mission.
• Impact on Ministry Budget: The cess boosted the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy‘s budget, allowing it to lower utility-scale solar costs and support off-grid renewable solutions.
• Transition to GST: Post-2017, the cess was subsumed under GST compensation, shifting funds to state revenue compensation, which highlighted challenges in India’s clean energy financing framework.

{GS3 – IE – Urbanization} Challenges Faced by Indian Cities

• Context (TH): World Cities Day 2024, themed Youth Climate Changemakers: Catalysing Local Action for Urban Sustainability, highlights the urgent need to address urbanization challenges.

Understanding Urbanization

• Urbanization refers to the shift from rural to urban areas, signifying the growth of cities and the transformation of society, economy and infrastructure.

Global Trends in Urbanization

• Rising Urban Populations: Currently, 57.5% of the global population (4.7 billion people) resides in urban areas, projected to double by 2050, intensifying urban challenges.
• Vulnerability in the Global South: Rapid urbanization in developing countries heightens issues like poverty, infrastructure strain and climate vulnerability, with cities facing greater risks from flooding, extreme heat, and pollution.

Factors Driving Urban growth in India

• Natural Population Growth: Higher birth rates due to better healthcare services in urban areas.
• Industrialization: Job opportunities in industries attract migrants to cities.
• Enhanced Facilities: Improved access to education, healthcare, and infrastructure in urban centers.
• Economic Opportunities: Diverse job prospects in various sectors draw people to cities.
• Cultural Diversity: Urban areas offer a cosmopolitan culture with people from varied backgrounds.
• Economic Distress: Rural residents migrate to cities due to economic hardships.

Challenges in Indian Cities

• Data Limitations affects resource allocation for urban demands: The lack of recent census data impedes urban planning, with World Bank indicating 40% of India’s population is urban.
• Inadequate Urban Planning & Overcrowding: Outdated frameworks lead to overcrowding, with 40% of residents in slums lacking basic infrastructure.
• Environmental Pressures & Climate Change: Severe pollution, urban flooding, and heat islands increase health risks and threaten sustainability.
• Housing Shortages, Inequality & Social Segregation: Insufficient affordable housing leads to stark inequality and segregation along socio-economic, social, and religious lines.
• Informal Sector Dominance: 90% of urban jobs are informal, lacking job security, social protections, and safe working conditions.
• Ineffective Policy Implementation: Key policies, such as the 74th Constitutional Amendment, which was supposed to empower urban local bodies, have been poorly implemented, leaving cities without adequate governance frameworks.
• Government Limitations: While urban bodies lack authority and funding (only 0.5% of GDP is allocated to urban development) cities struggle to finance essential infrastructure projects.
• COVID-19 Impact & Reverse Migration: The pandemic exposed urban infrastructure weaknesses, spurring reverse migration as cities failed to meet healthcare and economic needs.
• Deindustrialization & Peri-Urbanization: Job losses since the 1980s have pushed workers to peri-urban areas, aggravating overcrowding and economic strain in unplanned settlements.

Government Initiatives for Urban Development and Sustainability

• Smart Cities Mission: Launched in 2015, this initiative aims to promote sustainable urban development.
• Urban Housing: The PM Awas Yojana targets affordable housing for the urban poor.
• Transportation: The National Urban Transport Policy and new Metro Projects in cities like Jaipur and Kanpur aim to improve public transport.
• Water and Sanitation: Jal Jeevan Mission provides universal tap water connections, while AMRUT 2.0 focuses on water security and sewage management.
• Pollution Control: The National Clean Air Programme aims to reduce urban air pollution levels.
• Employment Generation: The National Urban Livelihood Mission addresses urban poverty by providing skill training to the urban poor.

Way Forward to Address Urbanization Challenges

• Enhance Data-Driven Urban Planning: Conduct regular urban censuses to provide accurate, current demographic data that can better inform policy decisions and resource allocation for cities.
• Strengthen Community Engagement: Promote participatory governance by involving local communities in urban planning to address real needs.
• Youth and Skill Development Programs: Launch skill-building programs for urban youth, focusing on green technologies and sustainable development, to foster roles in urban resilience.
• Promote Sustainable Infrastructure: Develop climate-resilient infrastructure focused on sustainability (green public transport, energy-efficient buildings and green spaces) to improve living quality.

{GS3 – Infra – Railways} DFCs boosting India’s Economy

• Context (IE): Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) are key to reducing logistics costs, enhancing supply chain efficiency, and driving GDP growth, while transforming railway infrastructure & boosting revenue.

About DFCs

• Specialized Freight Routes: DFCs are railway tracks exclusively designed for freight, featuring double-stack container and heavy-haul trains, enhancing capacity and speed.
• Key Corridors:
  • Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor (EDFC): 1,337 km long, from Sonnagar (Bihar) to Sahnewal (Punjab), focusing on coal, steel, and agricultural products.
  • Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (WDFC): 1,506 km long, from Mumbai to Dadri (UP), handling goods like textiles, chemicals, and industrial products.
• Foundation for EDFC and WDFC was laid in 2006. By 2024 three DFC stretches were inaugurated.
• Status: EDFC is operational, while WDFC is 93% complete, with full completion expected by December 2025. Over 325 freight trains operate daily on DFCs, marking a 60% increase compared to previous years.
• Freight Handling: DFCs have handled 232 billion Gross Tonne Kilometres (GTKMs) and 122 billion Net Ton Kilometres (NTKMs), making up over 10% of Indian Railways’ freight traffic.

Significance of DFCs

• Boost to GDP: DFCs have contributed to a reduction in logistics costs, lowering commodity prices by up to 0.5%, and supporting industries’ competitiveness.
• Revenue Growth: DFCs contributed 2.94% to the growth of Indian Railways’ revenue from FY 2018-19 to FY 2022-23.
• Export-Import Traffic: The WDFC has improved port access and lowered transit times, facilitating trade and boosting economic growth.
• Employment and Investments: DFC development has created jobs and attracted investments, contributing to national economic growth.
• Eases Congestion: Golden Quadrilateral handles 50% of freight traffic with 16% of track causing delays.
• Rail Freight Share: As per the National Rail Plan, DFCs aim to boost rail freight’s share to 45% by 2030.

Challenges

• Completion Delays: Delays in completing the final section of WDFC have pushed back its full commissioning to July 2025, leading to a loss of immediate benefits.
• Cost Overruns: Delays have resulted in an additional Rs 2,690 crore in project costs, raising the total expenditure to Rs 94,091 crore by March 2024.

Way Ahead

• Timely Completion: Speeding up the remaining construction of DFC sections is essential to fully realize their benefits and avoid further cost overruns.
• Expansion Plans: Future corridors like the East Coast Corridor, East-West Sub-Corridors, and North-South Sub-Corridors will further enhance connectivity and economic integration.
• Continued Investment: Ongoing investment in technology and infrastructure will ensure DFCs meet future freight demands and maintain efficiency.

Also refer to the DFC.

{GS3 – S&T – ISRO} Aditya-L1’s VELC Payload

• Context (IE): Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bengaluru recently reported the “first significant” results from the Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC) payload onboard the ADITYA-L1 Mission.

• Launched by ISRO in 2023, Aditya-L1 is India’s first space-based solar observatory mission, with a projected five-year mission life.

Primary Research Goals of Aditya-L1

• Coronal Heating and Solar Wind Acceleration: Investigating how the Sun’s corona heats up and accelerates solar wind particles.
• CME and Flare Initiation: Understanding the origin of CMEs and solar flares and their impact on space weather near Earth.
• Solar Atmospheric Dynamics: Studying the interactions within different layers of the Sun’s atmosphere.
• Solar Wind Distribution and Temperature Anisotropy: Examining the solar wind’s properties, including temperature distribution across different directions.

• Aditya-L1 has 7 Payloads (4 remote sensing and 3 in-situ)

VELC Payload

• Primary Instrument: Developed by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA).
• Purpose: Collects data on coronal temperature, plasma velocity, and density, along with monitoring CMEs and solar wind behavior for Corona Imaging.
• Capabilities: Simultaneous imaging, spectroscopy and spectro-polarimetry close to the solar limb.
• Design Features: An internally occulted coronagraph with integrated spectrograph, polarimetry module, detectors, and auxiliary optics for advanced solar observation.

First Significant Observation of a CME by VELC

• As the Sun nears its solar maximum, more frequent CMEs are expected during this 11-year cycle peak.
• Continuous monitoring by VELC during this active phase provides crucial data to track solar patterns and improve understanding of their impact.
• VELC observed a CME with the precise timing of CME initiation during its onset phase providing information on coronal conditions during such events and enhancing our understanding of solar dynamics.
• VELC observations will enhance solar behavior models and support global space weather forecasting efforts to mitigate solar disturbances.

{Prelims – In News} “Spade” Platform

• Context (TH): “Spade” was launched at the Indian Space Conclave 2024 (organised by the ISpA).

• It was developed by an Indian space start-up called Suhora Technologies. It is a platform that aggregates earth observation images produced by satellites, and makes them available for fee-based use.
• India currently has ten earth observation satellites in orbit.