Current Affairs – May 28, 2025

{GS1 – Geo – PG – Climatology} Bow Echo *

Context (IE): An intense storm over Delhi appeared as a rare crescent shape on IMD’s weather radar. This distinct formation is technically known as a “bow echo”.

What is a Bow Echo?

Definition: It is a curved line of thunderstorms often called a squall line that appears on weather radar in the shape of an archer’s bow. At times, it can be part of a larger squall line system.
- It is not a new phenomenon. These have appeared often in India during intense thunderstorms.
Origin of the Term: The term “bow echo” was coined in the 1970s by Ted Fujita, a renowned Japanese-American meteorologist best known for developing the Fujita Scale for classifying tornadoes.
Associated Weather Conditions: These formations are typically associated with severe weather, including damaging winds, intense thunderstorms, and widespread storm damage.
Size & Duration: It can extend from 20 km to 100 km, and last between 3 and 6 hours.

How Does a Bow Echo Form?

Gust Front: It begins when rain-cooled air descends to the surface and spreads outward horizontally. It creates a boundary known as the gust front between the cool outflow and the warm, moist surface air.
Formation of New Thunderstorms: The gust front lifts warm air upward, triggering the formation of new thunderstorms. These storms produce more rainfall, generating additional cool air that reinforces the gust front.

Credit: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Bow Echo: Over time, this repeated cycle strengthens the system. Inflow of air at the rear of the storm line causes it to bend forward, giving it the distinct bow shape seen on radar.
- The bow echo continues to propagate as long as new thunderstorms develop at its leading edge, enabling the system to grow and move forward with strong, straight-line winds.
Derecho: If the bow echo (or series of bow echoes) progresses more than 250 miles (400 kilometers) with widespread wind gusts 58 mph (93 km/h) or greater, then the bow echo is classified as a derecho.

{GS2 – IR – Africa} India-Africa Digital Compact

Context (TH): India and Africa are deepening digital cooperation through open-source digital public infrastructure (DPI), in line with Africa’s 2020–2030 Digital Transformation Strategy.

Africa Day (May 25) marks the 1963 founding of the Organisation of African Unity, symbolizing Africa’s drive for unity and development. The African Union’s Digital Transformation Strategy (2020–2030) prioritizes digital innovation for socio-economic growth. Currently, 85% of African countries have digital national ID systems, and over 70% collect biometric data.

Why India-Africa Digital Compact?

Scalable and open-source DPI: India provides adaptable, low-cost platforms like Aadhaar (digital ID), UPI, Covid Vaccine Intelligence Network (CoWIN for health), and DIKSHA (education) to enhance governance, service delivery, and financial inclusion across African nations.
Non-colonial & partnership based model: India’s DPI approach emphasizes transparency, local ownership, and co-creation—avoiding technological dependence & fostering sustainable digital ecosystems.
Human capital development: Initiatives such as the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme, Pan-African e-Network, and the IIT Madras Zanzibar campus focus on skill development, digital literacy, and capacity-building in emerging tech fields.
Global-South cooperation and leadership: India, Brazil, and South Africa (IBSA) promote digital equity through forums like G20 and the UN, pushing for inclusive global governance in digital transformation.

Evolution of India-Africa Digital Partnership

Governance-Centric Digital Infrastructure:
- Togo (2021): Digital ID system developed with IIIT-Bangalore.
- Zambia (2023): Smart Zambia Initiative enhances digital governance.
- Namibia (2024): UPI-style payment system with National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI).
- Ghana: Integration with UPI for low-cost, cross-border digital transactions.
Education and Skill Development:
- IIT Madras – Zanzibar Campus: Offers degree programmes in AI and Data Science.
- Pan-African e-Network (since 2009): Pioneering tele-education and telemedicine across health and education sectors.

Challenges to the India-Africa Digital Compact

Digital and Infrastructure Gaps: Despite high mobile coverage, only about 22% of Africans use mobile internet due to limited broadband access and unreliable electricity.
Affordability Issues: High costs of mobile data and digital devices restrict access, particularly in rural and low-income populations.
Gender Inequality: Women in Sub-Saharan Africa are 37% less likely than men to use mobile internet, highlighting a significant digital gender divide.
Low Digital Literacy: Limited technical skills and digital education hinder effective use of digital tools and services.
Weak Regulatory Frameworks: Lack of harmonized policies on data protection, cybersecurity, and digital rights slows integration and raises governance concerns.
Financing Constraints: Africa needs approximately USD 100 billion to expand broadband infrastructure, necessitating external investments and partnerships.
Local Adaptation Challenges: Open-source solutions require contextual customization, local ownership, and inclusive governance to be effective.

Way Forward

Enhance Capacity Building: Strengthen digital skills and knowledge transfer through initiatives like the ITEC programme and the Pan-African e-Network.
Promote Inclusive Digital Growth: Ensure digital projects respect local contexts, data privacy, and governance, fostering ethical, co-developed solutions.
Improve Infrastructure: Invest in affordable broadband and renewable energy to provide reliable, sustainable connectivity.
Facilitate Financial Inclusion: Integrate African digital payment systems with India’s UPI to boost cross-border trade and financial access.
Strengthen Policy and Regulatory Frameworks: Collaborate to establish harmonized data protection, cybersecurity, and digital governance standards.

Also Read > Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI)

{GS2 – MoF – Initiatives} RoDTEP Scheme Benefits Restored

Context (PIB | ET): Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) restored Remission of Duties and Taxes on Exported Products (RoDTEP) scheme for exporters operating under Advance Authorisation (AA), Export Oriented Units (EOUs) and Special Economic Zones (SEZs).

These categories were previously excluded from February 2025 but are now eligible from June 1, 2025.
Applicable Rates: Remission rates vary from 0.3% to 4.3%, depending on the product.
Benefit Coverage: Refunds embedded taxes, duties and levies not covered elsewhere.

Current Export Landscape

Recent Growth: Merchandise exports hit a 6-month high with 9.03% YoY growth in April 2025.
Trade Negotiations: India is in active FTA talks with US and EU; an FTA with the UK has been concluded.

RoDTEP Scheme

It is managed by the Department of Revenue under the Ministry of Finance.
Objective:
- Tax Neutrality for Exporters: To refund taxes & duties that aren’t rebated under any other scheme.
- Support to Export Growth: To reduce the hidden costs like electricity duty, mandi tax, and fuel charges during transport in the export value chain and make Indian goods price-competitive globally.
How the refund works: Refunds are calculated as a percentage of the export value (Free on Board value) & are provided as e-scrips that are recorded in a digital ledger by Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC), which can be utilized to pay basic customs duties or transferred to other importers.

Impact on Export Ecosystem

Global Competitiveness: Enhances price competitiveness of Indian products in global markets.
Level Playing Field: Parity across all types of export units by covering previously excluded sectors.
Stability in Trade Planning: Seamless continuation of benefits would support exporters in planning pricing and supply chain decisions without disruption.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – FRs} Free Speech Jurisprudence

Context (TH | TH | IE): SC granted interim bail to Professor Ali Khan Mahmudabad, arrested for social media posts during Operation Sindoor, sparking a wider debate on free speech and national security.

Criminal Charges Under Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023

Legal Concern: Many of the following provisions which were invoked, mirror the sedition law, which the Supreme Court suspended in 2022 for misuse against dissent.
- Section 152: Acts endangering India’s sovereignty and unity (up to 7 years imprisonment).
- Section 196(1)(b): Disturbing public tranquility.
- Section 197(1)(c): Assertions prejudicial to national integration.
- Section 299: Malicious acts outraging religious feelings.
- Section 79: Insulting the modesty of a woman.
- Section 353: Statements causing public mischief.

Supreme Court’s Observations and Interim Relief

Bail Granted with Conditions and the Court allowed the probe to continue but limited further FIRs.
Special Investigation Team (SIT): Directed to interpret the “complexity of phraseology” in posts, with members from outside Haryana and Delhi.
Free Speech vs National Sentiment: Court flagged possible “dog whistling” (use of coded or suggestive language intended to convey a hidden message understood only by a targeted subgroup) and questioned the motive behind the timing of the posts.

Key Legal Debates Triggered

Scope of Article 19(1)(a): Guards freedom of speech with restrictions only on grounds under Art. 19(2).
Supreme Court Precedents:
- Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015): Struck down Section 66A of the IT Act; affirmed that offensive speech is still protected if it doesn’t incite violence or public disorder.
- Kaushal Kishore v. State of UP (2023): Reiterated that Article 19(2) grounds are exhaustive; no added limitations permissible.
- Imran Pratapgarhi Case (2024): Speech must be judged from the lens of strong, reasonable individuals, not overly sensitive ones.

Emerging Standard: Interpretation of speech should favor expression unless crosses legal thresholds.

Historical Perspective:
- First Amendment (1951): Broadened Article 19(2) to include “public order” and other grounds, enabling more restrictions.
- Legacy of Censorship: Traced from Emergency-era excesses to modern digital-age prosecutions.

Way Forward

Speech vs Patriotism: Dissent or critique is not inherently anti-national.
High Threshold for Criminalisation: Legal action against speech must meet objective, well-defined tests, not moral discomfort.
Judiciary as Guardian: Courts must protect fundamental freedoms despite popular or political pressures.
Urgency for Uniform Standards: Equal treatment of speech across class, caste, and political identity remains vital for a healthy democracy.

Also refer to Judicial Clarity on Free Speech; Freedom of Speech (Press Freedom).

Context (TH): CBSE with support from the National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR), is set to mandate ‘Sugar Boards’ in schools to educate students on sugar-related health risks and encourage healthier choices.

About Sugar Boards

Visual educational tools installed in schools to promote awareness among students about sugar consumption and its health consequences. They feature:
- Sugar content in popular packaged foods and beverages (e.g., sodas, juices, chocolates), shown in teaspoons or grams.
- WHO recommends limiting daily sugar intake to 25 grams (approx. six teaspoons) for children.
- Health risks of excess sugar such as obesity, Type-2 diabetes, dental decay, and metabolic disorders.
- Healthier alternatives including fresh fruits, infused water, and traditional low-sugar snacks.
- Interactive activities for students (e.g., calculating sugar content, creating infographics) to encourage active engagement.

Need of Sugar Boards

Rising Childhood Diabetes: India reports 397 Type-2 diabetes cases per lakh children, ranking second only to China, indicating an alarming public health issue.
Excessive Sugar Intake: Indian children consume 13–15% of daily calories from sugar, which is three times the WHO-recommended limit of 5%.
Unhealthy Food Environments: Sugary and processed foods are widely available in and around schools, reinforcing unhealthy eating habits.
Inadequate Nutrition Education: Existing nutrition education is mostly theoretical and fails to engage children effectively or increase awareness.

Regulatory Gaps

The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has yet to finalize definitions for High Fat, Salt, and Sugar (HFSS) content specifically for school meals.
The Health Star Rating (HSR) system—a front-of-pack labelling scheme introduced by the Australian and New Zealand governments, rating foods from 0.5 to 5 stars based on overall nutritional quality by balancing positive nutrients (fibre, protein) against negatives (sugar, salt, saturated fat)—is under development but not yet implemented.
- Aims to help consumers make healthier choices and incentivize manufacturers to improve product.
Current regulations follow WHO guidelines; “low sugar” is defined only for labelling claims (≤5g per 100g), not as consumption norms.
India lacks indigenous dietary benchmarks based on national health data, such as Body Mass Index (BMI), insulin resistance, and lipid profiles, which limits the relevance of imported standards.

Also Read > Diabetes, Body Roundness Index | BRI vs BMI

{GS3 – Envi – Pollution} Oil Spills in Seawater **

Context (HT): A Liberian-flagged cargo ship sank off the Kerala coast, carrying hazardous materials like calcium carbide and diesel, raising serious concerns over a potential oil spill.

Calcium carbide reacts violently with seawater to release highly flammable acetylene gas, exacerbating the environmental risk.

About Oil Spills

Refers to the accidental release of petroleum hydrocarbons such as crude oil, diesel, or bunker fuel into marine, coastal, or freshwater environments.
Common causes include shipping accidents, offshore drilling mishaps, pipeline leaks, and storage failures.
- It is among the most toxic and long-lasting forms of marine pollution.
Impacts include severe damage to ecosystems like coral reefs and mangroves, toxicity to marine animals that disrupt the food chain, and harm to humans through contaminated seafood, loss of livelihoods, and decline in tourism.

Credit: mongabay,ng

India’s coastline is highly vulnerable due to busy shipping lanes, offshore oil rigs, and coastal refineries.
Biodiversity hotspots such as mangroves and coral reefs are especially sensitive to oil contamination.
Globally, oil spills cause around 60,000 deaths annually, disproportionately affecting children, fishing communities, seabirds, and marine flora and fauna.

Oil Spill Cleanup Techniques
Method	Description
Bioremediation	Uses oil-degrading microbes (e.g., Cycloclasticus, Oleispira) to biodegrade oil. Eco-friendly and increasingly preferred.
Containment Booms	Floating barriers that prevent oil from spreading.
Skimmers	Mechanical devices that remove oil from the water surface.
Sorbents	Natural (e.g., straw, ash) or synthetic materials that absorb or adsorb oil.
Dispersants	Chemicals that break oil into smaller droplets, speeding up natural degradation; may harm marine life.
In-situ Burning	Controlled burning of oil slicks on water; fast but produces toxic smoke.

Legal & Institutional Framework for Oil Spill Management

Key International Conventions

MARPOL 73/78 (Annex I): An international treaty under the International Maritime Organization aimed at preventing oil pollution from ships. It sets strict rules on managing and limiting oil discharges during ship operations and emergencies. India is a signatory and enforces these standards domestically.
Bunker Oil Pollution Convention (2001): Addresses pollution from bunker fuel (heavy marine oil), ensuring compensation for victims. India ratified it in 2015, strengthening liability & response mechanisms.
Civil Liability Convention (CLC, 1969) & International Oil Pollution Compensation (IOPC) Fund (1992): Hold ship owners strictly liable for oil spill damages and mandate insurance. The IOPC Fund provides extra compensation if damages exceed the owner’s liability.

India’s Legal Mechanisms

Merchant Shipping Act (1958): Incorporates pollution control rules from the international MARPOL Convention, regulating how ships manage and discharge oil to protect marine environments.
National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan (NOS-DCP), 1993: Coordinated by Indian Coast Guard; ensures a swift and coordinated national response involving central and coastal agencies.
National Green Tribunal (NGT) Act, 2010: Provides a fast-track legal system to resolve environmental cases, including oil spill disputes and awarding compensation to affected communities and ecosystems.

The global shipping industry emits around 1 billion tonnes of CO₂ annually, with pollution projected to rise by up to 250% by 2050. If considered a country, shipping would rank as the 6th largest carbon emitter worldwide. Carnival cruise ships alone emit ten times more sulfur dioxide than all 260 million cars in Europe combined. This pollution is worsened by the use of bunker oil—a heavy marine fuel that is 100 times more polluting than diesel, and outdated, toxic waste management systems on ships.

{GS3 – S&T – BioTech} Arhgap36 gene *

Context (ET): New study reveals ancient X chromosome mutation activating Arhgap36 gene causes orange coat in domestic cats.

Role of Arhgap36

Arhgap36 is located on the X chromosome in mammals including cats and humans.
Primary Functions: Regulates cellular processes linked to pigmentation; active in skin, brain and hormone-producing tissues.
X-Linked Expression Pattern
- Males (XY) require one copy of the mutation to be orange; Females (XX) need both X chromosomes to carry it for full orange fur; else they appear calico or tortoiseshell.
- This explains why most orange cats are male.

Unique Mutation Mechanism

Mutation is a tiny 0.005% deletion outside known pigment genes, between two previously unlinked genomic regions. This non-coding deletion activates Arhgap36 in pigment cells.
Activation blocks black pigment and triggers production of orange fur pigment.
Mutation does not affect gene structure itself but its regulatory expression.

Impact on Pigmentation

Orange cats lack a portion of the normal DNA sequence within the Arhgap36 region, shifting pigmentation to lighter hues.
Unlike standard mutations, this mechanism is unique to domestic cats and not found in wild animals.

{GS3 – S&T – Defence} Kaveri Engine

Context (LM): An online campaign ‘Fund Kaveri Engine’ is generating immense attention and excitement in the aftermath of the Operation Sindoor.

What is ‘Kaveri Engine’?

Kaveri Engine is an indigenously developed turbo engine used in the light combat aircraft programme. It is designed and developed to propel fighter jets.
Spearheaded by DRDO‘s Gas Turbine Research Establishment (GTRE) based in Bengaluru, the project has faced significant setbacks and delays.
- Key reasons for delays include the requirement of complex advanced technologies, Western sanctions, lack of skilled manpower, and major reliance on foreign setups.
It was initially conceptualized in the 1980s to power India’s indigenous Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas and reduce dependency on foreign jet engines.
In 2008, it was delinked from the Tejas programme, but a derivative version is being developed, and has been adapted for India’s 5^th generation fighter aircraft, the Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA).

Key Features

It is a low bypass, twin spool turbofan engine with 80 kilonewtons (kN) thrust. The engine features a flat-rated design to minimise thrust loss under high-speed and high-temperature conditions.
It incorporates a twin-lane Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) system with a manual override for enhanced reliability.

Current Status

According to reports, the Kaveri engine is undergoing flight tests in Russia. These trials are crucial for evaluating the engine’s performance in real-world conditions.
The engine is now being repurposed to power India’s indigenous long-range Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicles (UCAVs), like the Ghatak stealth drone.

What is a Jet Engine?

It is a type of reaction engine that generates thrust by ejecting high-speed gases backward. It powers fighter jets, commercial aircraft, and UAVs, making it one of the most advanced forms of propulsion.
Working Principle: Newton’s Third Law
- “For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.”
- The engine takes in air, compresses it, mixes it with fuel, ignites it, and forces it out at high velocity.
- This creates forward thrust that pushes the aircraft.

Types of Jet Engines

Turbojet: Traditional fighter aircraft engine produces high-speed thrust.
Turbofan: Used in commercial jets; has a bypass fan for efficiency.
Turboprop: Used in small aircraft, combining jet power with a propeller.
Ramjet & Scramjet: Advanced engines for hypersonic speeds, without moving parts.

Why is Jet Engine Manufacturing difficult?

Requires high-temperature materials like single-crystal turbine blades.
Precision engineering for efficiency and durability.
Complex aerodynamics for optimal thrust-to-weight ratio.
Decades of R&D—only a few nations have mastered it.

{GS3 – S&T – IPR – GI} Kumbakonam Vetrilai

Context (IE): The Kumbakonam vetrilai or betel leaf or paan leaf was recently granted a Geographical Indication (GI) tag by the Government of India.

Key Characteristics

The Kumbakonam betel leaf is found in the Cauvery Delta region. It is cultivated, washed and then bundled in places like Thiruvaiyaru, Papanasam, Thiruvidaimarudur, Kumbakonam, in Tamil Nadu.
The leaves are heart-shaped and vary in color from dark to light green.
They are widely recognized for their strong aroma and pungent taste.
Staple in South Asian households and central to preparing paan, a popular South Asian post-meal chew.

Credit: Hindustan Times

{GS3 – S&T – Space} Autonomous Satellites

Context (TH): AI integration is transforming satellites from passive tools into autonomous decision-making machines, raising legal, ethical and geopolitical challenges.

Technological Shift in Satellite Capabilities

Space Age inception (1957): Began with the Soviet Union’s launch of Sputnik, a passive radio-transmitting satellite.
Modern shift: Satellites are now powered by AI, making them self-operating, intelligent machines.
- Satellite edge computing: Onboard processing enables satellites to make real-time decisions, similar to self-driving cars.
Recent development: China launched the first ‘self-driving’ satellite in 2024, capable of independent orbit adjustments without human input.

Autonomous Satellites are satellites capable of operating with minimal or no human intervention using advanced algorithms.

Core Capabilities of Autonomous Satellites

Automated tasks: Docking, in-orbit refuelling, inspection & debris removal without ground intervention.
Self-monitoring and repair: Autonomous health checks & execution of repairs to avoid mission failure.
Route optimisation: Intelligent path planning to reduce collision risks and fuel consumption.
Geospatial intelligence: Real-time disaster detection, env. monitoring and inter-satellite coordination.
Combat functionality: Threat detection, tracking & autonomous engagement in national defences.

Key Risks and Accountability Challenges

AI hallucination risk: AI may misclassify threats, like mistaking commercial satellites as hostile, risking unintended conflict.
Unintended actions: Autonomous responses to anomalies could trigger near-collisions or diplomatic tensions.
Cybersecurity concerns: Satellites may be vulnerable to malicious interference.
Legal ambiguity: Existing treaties (Outer space treaty 1967, Liability Convention 1972) do not address AI autonomy, assuming human control.
Accountability vacuum: Complex ownership and operation across nations blur lines of liability and jurisdiction in case of AI-triggered incidents.

Reforms Needed

Categorisation of autonomy: Like driverless car regulations, define levels of AI control with stricter rules for higher autonomy.
Mandatory human oversight: Essential for high-risk scenarios like military engagement/evasive actions.
Certification protocols: Global testing standards for satellite AI fault tolerance, decision logs and scenario simulations.
Liability models from other sectors: Adopt pooled insurance and strict liability norms from aviation (Chicago Convention) and maritime (HNS Convention).
Ethical safeguards: Regulate dual-use concerns and massive data collection to protect privacy and prevent misuse.
International cooperation: Shared orbits require shared rules; global legal alignment is urgent to avoid escalations.

{Prelims – In News} One Big Beautiful Bill Act of 2025

Context (IE): The US House of Representatives passed the bill titled ‘One Big Beautiful Bill Act of 2025’.

It is a proposed budget reconciliation bill extending the major provisions of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, 2017 which are set to expire at the end of 2025.
It includes reductions in government spending and increased requirements for various federal aid programs, such as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and Medicaid.
It also contains a number of other provisions, including a 10-year moratorium on state AI legislation and restrictions on the ability to hold federal officials in contempt for failure to comply with judicial orders.
According to experts it will add $3.8 trillion to the federal government’s $36.2 trillion debt over the next 10 years.
However, Critics of the bill note that it is the largest upward transfer of wealth from the poor to the rich in human history and have nicknamed it “The Reverse Robin Hood Bill”.

{Prelims – PIN World – Africa} Mozambique

Context (UN): Mozambique is grappling with a triple crisis of ongoing armed conflict, frequent natural disasters, and prolonged political unrest, driving the country into a severe humanitarian emergency.

About Mozambique

Southeastern African country situated in the southern and eastern hemispheres.
It has a lengthy eastern coastline along the Indian Ocean, separated from island nations Madagascar, Comoros, and Mayotte by the Mozambique Channel.
Mozambique shares borders with Tanzania to the north; Malawi and Zambia to the northwest; Zimbabwe to the west; and South Africa and Eswatini to the southwest.
The capital city is Maputo, while Matola, part of the Maputo metropolitan area, is the largest city.
Major rivers draining Mozambique include the Zambezi (the largest), Limpopo, Licungo, Lúrio, and Rovuma, with most emptying into the Indian Ocean.
Lake Malawi, also called Lake Nyasa, is a significant lake in the region.
The country’s highest point is Mount Binga, located in the Chimoio highlands.
Mozambique’s principal natural resources comprise natural gas, coal, mineral sands, hydropower potential, and likely oil reserves.

{Prelims – Sports} Formula Racing

Context (IE): A rare global motorsport victory for India as Kush Maini wins the Formula 2 Sprint Race at the prestigious Monaco Grand Prix.

Formula Racing refers to single-seater, open-wheel racing categories namely Formula 1 (F1), Formula 2 (F2) and Formula 3 (F3), differentiated by car specifications and competition rules.
A spending cap of €121 million is imposed on F1 teams (2023–2025 seasons) to ensure fairness and financial sustainability in the sport.
There is no gender-based segregation in Formula racing, but women’s participation remains significantly low, including in recent seasons.

Distinction Between F1, F2 and F3

F1 is the top-tier championship with high-budget teams like Red Bull and McLaren, who build their own chassis and engines. F1 cars reach speeds over 370 km/h with highly complex engineering.
F2 features standardised cars and engines for all teams, emphasizing driver skill over machine advantage. All 14 rounds are hosted alongside F1 weekends. F2 cars cap under 320 km/h.
F3 serves as a junior category where young racers (min. age 16) gain experience before progressing to F2 and potentially F1.