Current Affairs – May 01, 2025

{GS1 – A&C – Personalities} Basaveshwara *

• Context (PIB | TH): Vachana Mantapa project announced in Kalaburagi on Basava Jayanti 2025.

Biography

• Also known as Bhakti bhandari (treasurer of devotion), Basavesvara was an Indian philosopher, poet, and social reformer.
• Birth and Early Life: Born in 1131 AD in Bagevadi (now in Karnataka).
• Served as Karanika (Accountant) & later as Prime Minister in the court of Kalachuri king Bijjala at Kalyana.
• Opposed caste discrimination & gender bias; initiated inclusive reforms ensuring dignity to all.
• Institutional Founder of Lingayatism: Laid the doctrinal foundation for Lingayatism as a distinct socio-religious system rooted in ethical living.
• His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats wearers of the linga).
  • They were also against all forms of ritual and idol worship.
  • They also questioned the theory of rebirth. The Lingayats also encouraged certain practices disapproved in the Dharmashastras, such as post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows. These won them followers amongst those who were marginalised within the Brahmanical social order.
  • Lingayats worship Shiva in his manifestation as a linga, and men usually wear a small linga in a silver case on a loop strung over the left shoulder.
  • Those who are revered include the jangama or wandering monks.
  • Lingayats believe that on death the devotee will be united with Shiva and will not return to this world.
  • Therefore they do not practise funerary rites such as cremation, prescribed in the Dharmashastras. Instead, they ceremonially bury their dead.
• Death: Believed to have attained spiritual samadhi in Kudalasangama (in present-day Bagalkot district).

Contributions of Basavanna (Basavesvara)

• Lingangayoga (Spiritual Framework): Holistic spiritual discipline, based on the principles of Arivu (true knowledge), Achara (right conduct), and Anubhava (divine experience), combining Bhakti (devotion), Jnana (knowledge) and Kriye (righteous action) for spiritual union with the divine.
  • Ishta Linga Worship: Spiritual equality symbolised through personal worship (not mandatory). Welcomed all, including those without Ishta Linga; advocated inclusivity over orthodoxy.
• Democratisation of Religion: Removed priestly intermediaries, making spiritual pursuit a personal and direct experience.
  • Resisted elaborate rituals, animal sacrifice and temple-centric religion in favor of inner purity & ethics.
• Establishment of Kalyana Rajya (Welfare State): Advocated equal rights and responsibilities for all, regardless of caste, class or gender.
  • Anubhava Mantapa: Established in Kalyana as world’s first socio-spiritual Parliament, where Sharanas (enlightened seekers) of all castes could have an open dialogue on democratic, spiritual & social values.
  • Kayaka (Divine Work): Emphasised sincere work as worship, irrespective of caste-based occupations.
  • Dasoha (Equal Distribution): Promoted economic equity; surplus earnings must be shared with the poor and society.
  • Emphasis on Rationalism and Humanism: Encouraged questioning of blind faith; upheld compassion, reason, and human dignity as spiritual virtues.
  • Promotion of Inter-Caste Harmony: Encouraged inter-caste marriages, labor dignity and collective spiritual growth.
  • Women’s Empowerment: Actively supported the spiritual and social leadership of women like Akka Mahadevi and other female Sharanas.
• Vachana Literature: Created a revolutionary literary movement; composed in simple Kannada, the Vachanas were direct, poetic, and reformist expressions of social and spiritual ideals.
  • Basava literary works include the Vachana Sahitya in Kannada Language.

Legacy

• Influence Beyond Lingayatism: Inspired Buddha-Basava-Ambedkar ideology adopted by social reformers and movements across Karnataka.
• Basaveshwara’s ideals of equality, non-discrimination and work-based dignity have been acknowledged internationally; a statue of Basaveshwara stands in London as a symbol of universal human values.
• Hagiography: A full account of Basava’s life and ideas are narrated in a 13^th century sacred Telugu text, the Basava Purana by Palkuriki Somanatha.

{GS2 – IR – Groupings} GAVI: The Vaccine Alliance

• Context (FT): Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance, is urging the US government to continue its funding, emphasising the commercial benefits for the US vaccine industry.

About the GAVI

• Established: 2000 as an independent public-private partnership.​
• Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.
• Mission: To expand access to vaccines sustainably and equitably to protect health and save lives.
• Vision: A world where everyone can receive life-saving vaccines.
• Functions:
  • Helps low- and middle-income countries get new and underused vaccines.
  • Provides funding and technical support.
  • Works to make vaccines affordable by negotiating prices and shaping markets.

VaccinesWork is Gavi’s award-winning digital platform that shares news, feature stories, and informative articles on global health and immunization from around the world.

• Partners: Collaborates with key partners like WHO, UNICEF, the World Bank, and the Gates Foundation to strengthen primary healthcare and support Universal Health Coverage (UHC).

Credit: gavi.org

• Its key Achievements (as of 2023) include vaccination of over 1.1 billion children, saving 18.8 million lives, and supporting more than 60 vaccine introductions.
• In the COVID-19 Response, it co-led the global COVAX initiative to ensure fair access to vaccines.

Vaccine Innovation Prioritisation Strategy (VIPS) Joint initiative by Gavi, WHO, UNICEF, Gates Foundation, and PATH. Identifies vaccine innovations with high impact potential in low- and middle-income countries. Prioritised Innovations (2021–2025):​ Microarray Patches (MAPs): Needle-free, easy-to-use patches for vaccines like HPV, Hepatitis B, and COVID-19. Focusing on development, approval, and adoption in hard-to-reach areas. Controlled Temperature Chain (CTC): Vaccines that remain stable at higher temperatures(heat stable), easing storage & transport. Improves delivery in areas with limited refrigeration. Barcodes on Primary Packaging: 2D barcodes on vaccine vials to improve supply tracking and reduce counterfeiting. GAVI has also approved GVI 6.0 or the Strategy for 2026–2030.

• Funding: Receives funds from governments, foundations, corporations, and individuals.
  • It uses creative financing models, such as the International Finance Facility for Immunisation (IFFIm) and the Advance Market Commitment (AMC) models.

Gavi in India

• Helped introduce vaccines such as Pentavalent, Rotavirus, Pneumococcal (PCV) and HPV (recently).
• Collaborates with Indian manufacturers like the Serum Institute of India and Bharat Biotech.
• Indian firms supply low-cost vaccines globally.
• India engaged in COVAX for equitable vaccine access.

{GS3 – Agri – Food Security} Food Literacy in School **

• Context (TH): The recent Nutrition for Growth (N4G) Summit in Paris and the UN General Assembly’s extension of the Decade of Action on Nutrition to 2030 have reinforced the urgent need for integrated, life-course approaches to nutrition.
  • In this backdrop, embedding structured food and nutrition education in school curricula is gaining global attention as a health intervention and a strategic investment in human capital.

Need for a Structured Food Literacy Curriculum

• Early start and progression: It should begin in preschool and evolve through the school years, ensuring continuity and deepening understanding of food, health, and sustainability.
• Key topics: It should include human body functions, dietary diversity, sustainable food systems, and the connection between food choices and health.
• Promotion of local and sustainable diets: Focus should be on bio-diverse diets that emphasise local, seasonal, and culturally relevant foods.
• Integration with national frameworks: The curriculum should align with India’s NEP and the School Health and Wellness Programme to ensure a holistic approach.

Systemic Gaps and Emerging Challenges

Systemic Gaps in Nutrition Education

• No standard curriculum: Lack of a unified national food literacy curriculum leads to fragmented and inconsistent education across states and schools.
• Outdated pedagogy: Current teaching often fails to address contemporary issues like processed food marketing, digital food content, and local food systems.
• Untrained teachers: Most educators lack formal training in food literacy, reducing effectiveness in delivering age-appropriate, practical knowledge.
• Limited resources: Shortage of interactive, culturally contextualised, evidence-based educational tools.
• Discontinuity: Absence of a progressive curriculum from early years to adolescence weakens knowledge retention and behaviour formation.

Challenges in the Modern Food Environment

• Aggressive marketing: Children are frequently targeted by advertisements for high-fat, high-sugar foods, influencing their consumption patterns.
• Peer pressure and skipped meals: Trends and peer influence in schools and irregular meal timings drive unhealthy food choices.
• Dual burden of malnutrition: Poor dietary habits lead to undernutrition and obesity, resulting in long-term health challenges and economic strain.

Significance of Nutrition in Education

• Nutrition and education link: Adequate nutrition enhances cognitive development, school performance, and overall health, laying the foundation for productive adulthood.
• Critical developmental windows: The first 1,000 days and the next 4,000 days (childhood to adolescence) are crucial for addressing early deficits and building lifelong healthy eating habits.
• Nutritional deficits in India: 77% of children lack dietary diversity, with diets low in fruits, vegetables, and protein, while high in sugar and processed foods.
• Health consequences: Poor childhood diets contribute to both undernutrition and obesity, increasing the risk of diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and other non-communicable diseases.
  • Nearly 70% of preventable adult diseases are linked to early-life nutrition – WHO.
• Social impact: Nutrition education promotes equity by levelling learning outcomes and supports sustainability by encouraging eco-conscious food choices, aligned with SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) and SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being).

Some of the important government initiative for food literacy include National Education Policy (NEP) 2020; School Health and Wellness Programme (2018); Mid-Day Meal Scheme (1995); Poshan Abhiyaan (National Nutrition Mission) (2018); Fit India Movement (2019) and Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) (1975).

Way Forward

• Mandating weekly nutrition education: Integrate structured nutrition education into the school timetable to ensure consistent learning and promote healthy habits from an early age.
• Train and equip teachers: Introduce capacity-building programs and develop multilingual, age-specific, and interactive resources for effective delivery.
• Cross-sector collaboration: Collaboration across health, education, agriculture, and environment sectors is needed for a comprehensive and sustainable food literacy framework.
• National food literacy framework: India should establish a national food literacy framework that aligns with SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) and SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being), ensuring consistency and standardized nutrition education across all schools.

Schools as Catalysts for Change Experiential learning: Initiatives like school gardens, cooking classes, and student-led health clubs make food education practical and memorable. Healthier campus ecosystems: Encourage nutritious options in school canteens and discourage ultra-processed foods. Student-led change: Empowered with knowledge, students can influence dietary behaviours in their families and communities, driving grassroots nutrition awareness.

Also Refer > National Education Policy 2020; POSHAN (Prime Minister’s Overarching Scheme for Holistic Nutrition) Abhiyaan; Early Childhood Care and Education.

{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} AIM4NatuRe

• Context (FAO): AIM4NatuRe was launched on Earth Day 2025 with UK support, to enhance ecosystem restoration monitoring under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF).

• AIM4NatuRe (Accelerating Innovative Monitoring for Nature Restoration) is a Global Ecosystem Monitoring Initiative led by Food & Agriculture Organization (FAO), as part of its expanded AIM4Forests Programme.
• Scope: Covers forests, agricultural lands, grasslands, marine zones and wetlands.
• Duration & Funding: 2025–2028, with US$9 million funding.

Key Objectives and Strategic Areas

• Support Target 2 of KMGBF, restoring at least 30% of degraded ecosystems by 2030.
• Strengthen Monitoring Systems: Build countries’ capacity to track and report ecosystem restoration by offering technical support and training to national agencies.
• Inclusive Tech-Driven Monitoring: Combine Indigenous Peoples’ biocentric knowledge with satellite data, FERM (Framework for Ecosystem Restoration Monitoring) tools and standardized protocols.

{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Global Geoparks Network *

• Context (IE): UNESCO has added 16 additional sites from 11 nations to its Global Geoparks Network.

• In a historic first, North Korea joined the network, while Saudi Arabia made its debut with two newly designated geoparks.
• In 2025, UNESCO marked the 10^th anniversary of its International Geoscience and Geoparks Programme, a key Earth Sciences initiative.

International Geoscience and Geoparks Programme (IGGP)

• It is UNESCO’s flagship initiative in Earth Sciences, launched in 2015.
• Aim: To strengthen the connection between geological heritage and sustainable development by promoting international cooperation in geoscience research and education.
• Two Main Pillars: The programme operates through two main pillars.
  1. International Geoscience Programme (IGCP): Focuses on collaborative scientific research on global geological issues.
  2. UNESCO Global Geoparks (UGGp): Recognizes areas of geological significance that are managed holistically for conservation, education, and sustainable development.

What are UNESCO Global Geoparks (UGGp)?

• UGGp are single, unified geographical areas where sites and landscapes of international geological significance are managed with a holistic concept of protection, education and sustainable development.
• The UNESCO Global Geoparks designation now includes 229 sites across 50 countries.
• As of April 30, 2025, India does not have any UNESCO Global Geoparks.

Criteria to be a UNESCO Global Geopark

• Geological Heritage of International Value: Must have geological heritage of international value.
• Effective Management Structure: UNESCO Global Geoparks are managed by a body having legal existence recognized under national legislation.
• Visibility: UNESCO Global Geoparks promote sustainable local economic development mainly through geotourism. To stimulate the geotourism in the area, it is crucial that a UGGp has visibility.
• Networking: Membership of the Global Geoparks Network (GGN) is obligatory for UGGp.
  • Founded in 2004, the Global Geoparks Network (GGN) is a legally constituted not-for-profit organisation with an annual membership fee.

Is the Designation Permanent?

• UNESCO Global Geopark status is not permanent. It is granted for a period of 4 years, after which the site undergoes a revalidation process.
  • Green Card: If it continues to meet the required standards, it receives a “green card” and retains its status for another 4 years.
  • Yellow Card: If standards are not fully met, a “yellow card” is issued, giving the management 2 years to make improvements.
  • Red Card: Failure to meet criteria within those 2 years results in a “red card,” and the area loses its UNESCO Global Geopark designation.

{GS3 – Envi – Laws} Draft Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensity Target Rules

• Context (IE): The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) released Draft Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensity (GEI) Target Rules, 2025.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensity (GEI)

• GEI refers to the quantity of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted per unit of product output, such as per tonne of cement or aluminium, expressed in tonnes of CO₂ equivalent (tCO₂e), accounting for global warming potential of each GHG.
• Includes CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, O₃, water vapour and synthetic gases like CFCs and HCFCs.

Draft GEI Target Rules, 2025

• Notified by MoEFCC to set mandatory emission intensity reduction targets for energy-intensive sectors like aluminium, cement, pulp & paper, and chlor-alkali sectors.
• Regulatory Timeline: 2023-24 set as baseline; targets applicable in 2025-26 and 2026-27.
• Annual GEI Compliance Mandatory: Obligated entities must meet annual Greenhouse Gas Emission Intensity (GEI) targets under the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme, 2023.
• Offset Option via Indian Carbon Market: Entities can purchase carbon credit certificates from the Indian Carbon Market to bridge GEI shortfalls.
• Penalty for Non-Compliance: The Central Pollution Control Board imposes environmental compensation equal to twice the average carbon credit price in the compliance year, payable within 90 days.
  • Legal Enforcement: Violations are addressed under the Environmental Protection Act, 1986, ensuring statutory backing.

• The Bureau of Energy Efficiency oversees implementation, and credits are traded via the Indian Carbon Market platform, offering compliance flexibility and profit opportunities.
• Aligns with Article 6 of Paris Agreement.

Key Objectives of GEI Target Rules

• To Enable Carbon Market Functioning: Operationalises the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS), 2023, as under article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol that underpins carbon market principles.
• To Support Climate Goals: Helps meet India’s Paris Agreement commitment to reduce GDP emissions intensity by 45% by 2030 from 2005 levels.
• To Promote Low-Carbon Industry: Encourages decarbonisation in energy-intensive sectors.
• To Drive Technology Adoption: Incentivises the use of sustainable, energy-efficient, and climate-resilient industrial technologies.

Complementary Govt Initiative

• PAT Scheme (Perform, Achieve, Trade): Initiated in 2012 as part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change, by the Ministry of Power as a market-based mechanism to enhance energy efficiency.
  • While PAT targets energy use, GEI targets emissions intensity, both align toward a common decarbonisation pathway.

Carbon Credit Trading Scheme, 2023

• It is an initiative by the Ministry of Power for implementation of carbon trading mechanism in India.
• Under this, carbon credit certificates are issued by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) to entities that surpass their emission reduction targets.
• The Ministry of Power notifies obligated entities based on recommendations from the BEE.
• Emission intensity targets are set by the MoEFCC based on the Ministry of Power recommendations.
• Entities failing to meet their targets must purchase carbon credit certificates.
• The scheme is overseen by a National Steering Committee chaired by the Power Secretary.
• Integration with GEI Targets: Defines what industries must achieve to generate tradable carbon credits.

Significance for India’s Climate Strategy

• Supports NDC Implementation: Key tool for achieving India’s Nationally Determined Contributions under the Paris Agreement.
• Boosts Industrial Accountability: Mandates clear emission reduction targets sector-wise.
• Fosters Green Industrial Transformation: Lays groundwork for sustainable industrial practices and carbon-efficient production.

Also refer to Decarbonization of India’s Logistics Sector; India’s Carbon Credit Mechanism.

{GS3 – Envi – Plastic Pollution} Phthalates *

• Context (TH): A recent study has linked daily exposure to phthalates specifically di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) to approximately 3.5 lakh deaths globally from heart disease in 2018.

• India recorded the highest number of these deaths (103,587), followed by China and Indonesia.

What are Phthalates?

• Phthalates are chemicals commonly used to make plastics flexible and durable. Often referred to as “everywhere chemicals”, they are widely present in everyday items such as:
  • Plastic Products: PVC pipes, vinyl flooring, garden hoses, medical tubing, rain- and stain-resistant materials, children’s toys etc.
  • Personal Care Products: Shampoos, soaps, hairsprays, perfumes, and cosmetics (to extend fragrance longevity) etc.

Health Impacts of Phthalates

• Phthalates can break down into microscopic particles that enter the human body through ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact.
• Studies have linked them to obesity, fertility issues, cancer, hormonal imbalances, increased risk of asthma and allergies in children etc.
• It can trigger inflammation in the arteries, increasing the risk of heart attacks and strokes over time.

{GS3 – IS – Reports} UNODC Report on Transnational Organised Crime

• Context (UNODC): The UNODC 2025 report “Inflection Point: Global Implications of Scam Centres, Underground Banking, and Illicit Online Marketplaces in Southeast Asia (2025)” sheds light on the growing threat posed by transnational organised crime (TOC) in East and Southeast Asia.

The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) is a global organisation that aims to combat illicit drugs, organised crime, corruption, and terrorism. It publishes important reports such as the World Drug Report, the Global Report on Trafficking in Persons, and the Wildlife Crime Report.

Key Highlights of the Report

Global spread of Transnational Organised Crime (TOC)

• Syndicates originating in East and Southeast Asia are expanding operations globally.
• Active in Africa, South Asia (incl. India), the Middle East, Europe, North and South America, and the Pacific Islands. This “hedging strategy” ensures continuity despite regional crackdowns.

Industrial-scale scam operations

• Emergence of hundreds of scam centres in Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and border towns such as Sihanoukville (Cambodia) and Myawaddy (Myanmar).
• Operated by trafficked labour forced into cyber fraud, crypto scams, and sextortion.
• Estimated annual revenue: $43.8 Bn. Function from business parks with lax oversight & poor regulation.

Human trafficking & exploitation

• Victims include migrants from India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Africa.
  • Example: 300+ Indians rescued from scam centres in Myanmar in early 2025.
• Victims are held under duress and subjected to modern digital slavery.

Tech-enabled crime networks

• TOC groups now resemble tech startups, using:
  • AI, deepfakes, malware, botnets.
  • Cybercrime-as-a-service models.
• Supported by illicit service providers offering tools and laundering mechanisms.

Illicit online marketplaces

• Huione Guarantee (Haowang), a Telegram-based black-market escrow platform.
  • Facilitates trade in fraud tools, fake IDs, human trafficking, and malware.
  • Uses encrypted messaging apps to avoid detection.

Diversification of Organised Crime Activities

• Apart from cybercrime, TOC networks are expanding into synthetic drug production.
  • Example: In Myanmar, there’s a shift to methamphetamine manufacturing, especially in Shan State, showcasing physical and digital criminal diversification.

Illicit financial flows & money laundering

• Use of cryptocurrencies (Bitcoin, USDT) for laundering scam proceeds.
• Dependence on Informal Value Transfer Systems (IVTS) across Asia and Africa.
• Front companies are used to mask illicit financial routes.

Nexus between Cyber Fraud and Organised Crime Groups (OCGs) Profit-driven: Cyber fraud offers high returns with relatively low risk. Tech-enabled: OCGs use AI, malware, ransomware, phishing, and deepfakes. Crime-as-a-service: Syndicates rent out cybercrime infrastructure. Money laundering: Proceeds laundered via crypto and underground channels. Global reach: Digital tools enable cross-border criminal operations.

Recommendations

• Strengthen political commitment to combat TOC and cyber fraud.
• Close legal loopholes in SEZs and cryptocurrency regulation.
• Promote intelligence sharing and asset recovery. Invest in:
  • Victim protection and rehabilitation.
  • Cybercrime investigation capacity.
  • Digital arrest infrastructure.
  • Cross-border collaboration via ASEAN, INTERPOL, and FATF platforms.

Digital arrest The process of identifying, tracking, and apprehending cybercriminals using digital forensics and online surveillance tools. Methods include: IP tracking, data mining, digital footprint analysis. Use of international legal cooperation (e.g., Budapest Convention). Cyber forensics and spyware tools for monitoring.

{GS3 – S&T – Defence – Missile} Medium-range surface-to-air missile (MR-SAM)

• Context (HT): The Indian Navy has successfully test-fired an MR-SAM air defence missile system aboard the INS Surat warship in the Arabian Sea.

• INS Surat is the 4^th and final ship of the P15B Guided Missile Destroyer Project.

Key Features

• MRSAM: It is a high-response, quick-reaction, vertically launched supersonic missile designed to neutralise enemy aerial threats.
• Components: Mainly consisting of a Multi-Function Surveillance and Threat Alert (MFSTAR) Radar, a Weapon Control System (WCS), and a Vertical Launcher Unit (VLU).
• Developed by DRDO and Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI). Production at Bharat Dynamics Limited.
• Range: It’s a mobile, land-based system ranging up to 70 km. Weight: 275 kg
• Capabilities:
  • It can engage multiple targets simultaneously.
  • It is designed for both point and area air defence.
  • It can intercept targets at various altitudes (low, medium, and high).
  • It can operate in all weather conditions.
  • It possesses high manoeuvrability for intercepting fast-moving targets.
• The MR-SAM is highly effective against surface-to-surface missiles and other aerial targets.

{GS3 – S&T – Defence} Agent Orange *

• Context (IE): Fifty years after the Vietnam War (1955-75), millions of Vietnamese continue to suffer from the devastating effects of Agent Orange.

• Agent Orange is a toxic herbicide sprayed by US forces to destroy forests and food crops that provided cover and sustenance to North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops.
• From 1961 to 1971, around 74 million litres of herbicidal chemicals were sprayed over South Vietnam and parts of Laos and Cambodia—over half of which was Agent Orange.

Impact

• Soil Persistence: While Agent Orange degraded within days or weeks, dioxin could persist in sun-exposed soil for up to three years.
• Food Chain Contamination: When buried or embedded in riverbeds and sediment, its half-life extended to over 100 years—ample time for it to enter the food chain through fish, ducks, and other animals.
• Human Exposure: Humans could also be exposed to contaminated dust by inhaling it or absorbing it through the skin. Once in the body, dioxin can linger for up to 20 years.
• Health Impacts: Linked to cancer and diabetes, as well as birth defects such as spina bifida, oral clefts, and cardiovascular abnormalities.

Vietnam War The Vietnam War (1955 – 1975) was an armed conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia fought between North Vietnam and South Vietnam and their allies. North Vietnam was supported by the Soviet Union and China, while South Vietnam was supported by the United States and other anti-communist nations. The conflict was the 2nd of the Indochina wars and a proxy war of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States.

{Prelims – PIN World – Asia} Cholistan Desert *

• Context (IE): Pakistan has paused its Green Pakistan Initiative, which includes six strategic canals, most notably the Cholistan Canal, aimed at irrigating the Cholistan Desert.

  

• The Cholistan Desert, also locally known as Rohi, is a desert in the southern part of Punjab, Pakistan.
• It borders the Thar Desert in India and spans approximately 26,000 square kilometres.
• The desert is known for its arid and semi-arid tropical desert climate and is characterized by sandy terrain with some alluvial flats and small sandy dunes.
• Cholistan was a centre for caravan trade, leading to the construction of numerous forts in the medieval period to protect trade routes, of which the Derawar Fort is the best-preserved example.
  • Derawar fort was built in the 9th c. by Rai Jajja Bhatti.