Current Affairs – August 02, 2024

{GS1 – Geo – PG – Geomorphology} Landslides in India

• Context (TH | IE | HT): Landslides are sudden movements of rock, boulders, earth, or debris down a slope under the impact of gravity. In July 2024, the Wayanad district in Kerala experienced severe landslides, which resulted in hundreds of deaths, property damage, and displacement of residents.

Types of Landslides

Based on the materials involved

• Rock slide: Movement of bedrock down a slope, typically involving detached rock masses.
• Debris slide: Rapid downslope movement of loose, unconsolidated material like soil, rock fragments, organic matter, etc.
• Soil slide: Movement of saturated, loose soil that may involve a mix of soil and vegetation.
• Loose mudslide: Flow of loosely bound mud that becomes mobilised and moves downslope.

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Based on the movement of material

• Fall: Sudden free fall of rock or debris from a steep slope or cliff.
• Topple: Rotation of rock/soil blocks over a pivot point, causing them to fall forward.
• Slide: Downslope movement of a coherent mass along a defined slip surface.
• Rotational slide: Curved sliding motion of material along a concave slip surface, often involving a rotational component.
• Translational slide: Downslope movement of material along a planar or nearly planar slip surface.

Based on the flow of material

• Debris flow: Fast-moving mixture of water, soil, and rock that flows like a fluid down a slope.
• Earth flow: Slow, steady movement of saturated, fine-grained soil/sediment resembling a viscous fluid.
• Mudflow: Rapid, fluid movement of a water-saturated mixture of mud, silt, and clay.
• Creep: Slow, gradual downslope movement of soil and rock due to gravity, often imperceptible over short periods.

Causes Behind Landslides

Natural Factors

• Heavy Rainfall: Heavy rain saturates the soil, reducing stability and triggering landslides. E.g., the 2018 Kerala floods caused numerous landslides in the Western Ghats due to intense rainfall.
• Earthquakes: Seismic activity shakes the ground, destabilising slopes and causing landslides, such as the 2009 Kinnaur landslide.

• Snow Melting: Rapid snowmelt increases water flow, weakening soil stability.
• Undercutting of Slopes Due to Flooding: Flooding erodes the base of slopes, making them unstable. E.g., landslides in the Western Ghats, exacerbated by flooding.

Anthropogenic Factors

• Excavation: This removes soil and rock, destabilising slopes. For example, construction and excavation activities worsened the 2019 Munnar landslide in Kerala.
• Cutting of Hills and Trees: Deforestation removes vegetation that stabilises soil, increasing landslide risk. For example, hill cutting and deforestation aggravated the 2018 Kodagu landslides in Karnataka.
• Overgrazing by Cattle: Overgrazing destroys vegetation, leading to soil erosion and landslides. For example, overgrazing in the Western Ghats increases soil erosion, contributing to landslide risk.

Impacts of Landslides

• Loss of life and property: For instance, around 300 people lost their lives in Wayanad landslides.
• Infrastructure damage: Critical infrastructure like roads, bridges, power lines, etc. are destroyed.
• Economic losses: Disrupt livelihoods, trade, and tourism. The landslides in Darjeeling, West Bengal, have impacted the region’s tea industry.
• Environmental degradation: Causes soil erosion, deforestation, and pollution of water bodies, leading to long-term environmental consequences.

• Disaster relief and rehabilitation: Government resources are diverted for rescue, relief, and rehabilitation efforts after landslides, impacting other development priorities.
• Psychological impact: Landslides can cause severe trauma and psychological distress among survivors and affected communities.

The Worst Landslides in India

• Guwahati, Assam (1948): Over 500 people lost their lives when an entire village was buried under a landslide triggered by heavy rains.
• Darjeeling, West Bengal (1968): A massive landslide caused by floods killed over 1000 people and divided a 60 km long highway into 91 parts.
• Malin, Maharashtra (2014): Heavy rainfall triggered a landslide that claimed the lives of around 151 people, with 100 others missing.
• Mapla, Uttarakhand (1998): A series of landslides over seven days wiped out an entire village, resulting in the death of over 380 people.
• Kedarnath, Uttarakhand (2013): Unprecedented rain and floods triggered massive landslides, leading to the death of over 5700 people and the destruction of thousands of villages.
• Wayanad, Kerala (2024): Recent landslides in the Wayanad district caused significant loss of life and property damage, highlighting the ongoing threat of landslides in India.

States and districts with the Highest Incidence of Landslides in India

Source: The Hindu

• Kerala: Witnessed devastating landslides, particularly during the monsoon and topped the list with the highest number of landslides recorded from 2015-2022.
• Maharashtra: Certain regions, like the Western Ghats, are prone to landslides.

Northeastern India

• Mizoram: Its unique geographical and geological conditions make it highly susceptible to landslides.
• Tripura: Susceptible to landslides due to its hilly terrain and heavy rainfall.
• Nagaland: Faces significant landslide challenges, especially during the monsoon season.
• Arunachal Pradesh: The state’s mountainous landscape makes it prone to landslides.

Himalayan Region

• Uttarakhand: Known for its mountainous terrain, Uttarakhand has experienced numerous landslides.
• Himachal Pradesh: Another Himalayan state facing landslide risks due to its geographical features.
• Jammu and Kashmir: The region’s hilly topography contributes to frequent landslide occurrences.

Read > Indian Landslide Susceptibility Map.

Landslides in Western Ghats

• The Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot, are also prone to landslides due to their unique geographical and climatic conditions.

Causes of Increased Landslides in the Western Ghats

• Deforestation and Land Use Change: Large-scale conversion of forests into plantations, especially monoculture plantations like rubber and tea, has weakened the soil structure, making it susceptible to erosion and landslides.
• Unsustainable Agriculture Practices: Shifting cultivation and steep slope agriculture have led to soil erosion, loss of vegetation cover, and increased landslide vulnerability.
• Climate Change and Extreme Weather Events: Increased frequency and intensity of rainfall due to climate change have triggered landslides.
• Unscientific Infrastructure Development: Construction of roads, dams, and tunnels without proper environmental impact assessment has destabilised slopes and increased landslide risks.
• Urbanization and Population Pressure: Encroachment into hill slopes for residential and commercial purposes has led to the removal of vegetation and increased load on the slopes.
• Mining and Quarrying Activities: Illegal and unscientific mining and quarrying have weakened the rock structure and destabilised slopes.

Comparison between landslides in the Western Ghats and the Himalayas

Landslide Mitigation Measures

• Reforestation and Afforestation: Planting native tree species helps stabilize soil, reduce water runoff, and enhance the overall ecosystem.
• Sustainable Land Use Management: Implementing strict regulations on land use, especially in hilly areas, to prevent deforestation, unplanned construction, and unsustainable agriculture.
• Early Warning Systems: Developing a robust early warning system using rainfall data, soil moisture sensors, and other meteorological parameters to alert people before a landslide occurs.
• Engineering Interventions: Constructing retaining walls, terraces, and drainage channels to stabilise slopes and prevent soil erosion.
• Disaster Preparedness and Response: Conduct regular mock drills and evacuation plans and train local communities on disaster response measures.
• Community Participation: In landslide mitigation efforts through awareness campaigns, training, and providing alternative livelihood options.
• Research and Monitoring: Conduct scientific studies to understand landslide patterns and vulnerabilities and develop advanced monitoring systems.
• Infrastructure Development: Constructing roads, bridges, and other infrastructure with landslide-resistant designs, avoiding vulnerable areas, and incorporating drainage systems.

Way Forward

• Strengthened Disaster Management and Early Warning Systems: The Kerala State Disaster Management Authority uses advanced monitoring systems, including rainfall gauges, soil moisture sensors, and remote sensing in the Idukki district to predict landslides and enable timely evacuations.
• Comprehensive Land Use Planning and Zoning: Karnataka enforces strict land use regulations in the Western Ghats, designating buffer zones and no-development areas to restrict construction in ecologically sensitive regions.
• Investment in Research and Technology: The Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bangalore funds research on landslide susceptibility mapping and develops early warning models for the Western Ghats.
• Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction: The Nilgiri District Administration in TN has established community-based disaster management committees for awareness, mock drills, and evacuation.
• Sustainable Development and Ecosystem Restoration: The Western Ghats Ecology Expert Committee (WGEC) advocates afforestation and sustainable agriculture to protect ecosystems and mitigate risks.
• Infrastructure Development with Resilience: The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) adopts landslide-resistant designs for road construction, including retaining walls, tunnels, and effective drainage systems.

{GS2 – Governance – Initiatives} Legal Advisory Council

• Context (TH): Regarding the establishment of a Legal Advisory Council (LAC) to the Prime Minister akin to the Economic Advisory Council (EAC).

• Objective: To anticipate the impact, challenges, and lacunae in forthcoming laws on which the government is deliberating and/or finalizing legislation or policies.
• Composition: Legal luminaries, eminent jurists, prominent academicians, and researchers with specializations in varied fields such as criminal law, trade law, international law, business laws, & taxation laws.

Foundation Courses

Need of LAC

• Legal issues of national and social importance: arising from the government’s legislative and policy initiatives. For instance, the Electoral Bonds scheme was recently held to be unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, for violating the right to information of voters. Also, Section 106(2) of the Bhartiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, stipulates a penalty of up to 10 years imprisonment for a person involved in an accident who flees without reporting it.
• Ineffectiveness of Law Commission of India (LCI): Only 50% of their recommendations of LCI to date have been implemented. Despite the legal problems in the justice system being pervasive, pressing, and varied, the LCI has on average produced only 4.19 reports per year from the date of its inception.
• Lack of adequate examination: in terms of legal viability and impact assessments of policies and laws.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – Governor} Governor’s power to refer Bills to President

• Context (TH): The SC should limit the Governor’s power to refer Bills to President without cause.

• Seven Bills from Kerala that may not normally require the President’s assent were sent to President; four were refused assent without any reason being assigned.

SC Rulings

• In the Punjab case: Ruled that Governors do not have a veto over Bills and that whenever they withheld assent, they were bound to return the Bills to the Assembly, and if the Assembly adopted the Bills, with or without amendments, they were bound to grant assent.
• In the Telangana Case: Observed that Governors should return Bills “as soon as possible” and not sit over them, making State Legislative Assemblies wait indefinitely.

Bill reserved for President’s assent

• Article 200 addresses the Governor’s powers regarding assent to bills passed by the State legislature, allowing the Governor to reserve the bill for the President’s consideration.
• In one case such reservation is obligatory, that is, where the bill passed by the state legislature endangers the position of the state high court.
• In addition, the governor can also reserve the bill if it is of the following nature:
  • Ultra-vires, that is, against the provisions of the Constitution.
  • Opposed to the Directive Principles of State Policy.
  • Against the larger interest of the country.
  • Of grave national importance.
  • Dealing with compulsory acquisition of property under the Constitution.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – Reservation} OBC Creamy Layer Reservation

• Context (TH): The allocation of an IAS position to an Other Backward Class (OBC) Non-Creamy Layer (NCL) candidate with multiple disabilities has brought attention to issues related to the creamy layer in OBC reservations.

History of Reservation

• Articles 15 and 16: Ensure equality for all citizens in government policies and public employment, respectively.
• Special provisions: For the advancement of SEBCs or OBCs, Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST). E.g., Reservations for SCs and STs are set at 15% and 7.5%, respectively, in jobs, educational institutions, and public sector undertakings (PSUs) at the central level.
• In 1990, Prime Minister V. P. Singh implemented a 27% reservation for Other Backward Classes (OBC) in central government employment, following the Mandal Commission’s recommendations from 1980.
• In 2005, reservations were extended to OBCs, SCs, and STs in educational institutions, including private ones.
• In 2019, a 10% reservation was introduced for the Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) among the unreserved category.

Issues of reservation

• Inadequacies and Dubious Practices: Allegations of applicants obtaining NCL or EWS certificates and disability certificates through fraudulent means.
• Circumventing Creamy layer exclusion: Since only the income of the applicant and their spouse is taken into account, strategies like gifting assets or opting for early retirement may be employed for exclusion.
• Concentration of reservation benefits: Around 97% of reserved jobs and seats held by around 25% of OBC castes/sub-castes (Rohini Commission).
• Inefficiency: Zero representation of nearly 1,000 of the 2,600 OBC communities in jobs and educational institutions. 40-50% of reserved seats for OBC, SC, and ST in central government roles remain unfilled.
• Issues in the SC and ST categories: They do not have a no creamy layer exclusion.

Way forward

• Enhanced verification and scrutiny: Close the loopholes in the issuance of NCL, EWS, and disability certificates and thorough scrutiny to ensure that only eligible applicants receive these benefits.
• Filling vacancies: Ensure vacancies reserved for specific communities should be filled promptly without any backlog.
• Sub-categorization within castes of reservations: It is necessary to tackle the under-representation or lack of representation of certain communities.
• Creamy layer exclusion: Excluding the creamy layer in SC and ST categories, at least for the children of Group I/Class A government officials.

{GS2 – Social Sector – Education} Eat Right School Programme

• Context (PIB): FSSAI has taken steps like Eat Right School Programme to promote healthy food habits among school students.

• Launched as part of the Eat Right India Initiative, it aims to educate school children on food safety, nutrition, and hygiene.
• The Eat Right School Programme includes:
  • Eat Right School Certification.
  • Eat Right matrix, a monitoring and evaluation tool that promotes a safe and wholesome environment for children.
  • Eat Right resource materials are integrated into school curricula for students and utilized for teacher training programs to ensure a robust and informed approach to food safety and nutrition education.

{GS3 – Envi – Degradation} Threat to open ecosystems

• Context (TH): More trees in open ecosystems like savannahs and grasslands have significantly reduced native grassland bird populations.

• The study reported that high woody encroachment in several national parks in India had shrunk grassland habitats by 34%, and tree cover increased by 8.7%.

Threats to Open Ecosystems

• Woody Encroachment: Leads to significant declines in grassland birds and specialist rodents. E.g., Banni grasslands of Kutch.
• Invasive Species: Planted to combat desertification and provide firewood. E.g., introduction of Prosopis Juliflora, in the Banni grasslands, has transformed large areas into Prosopis woodland.
• Plantations: Plantations of non-native species have caused significant ecological changes. E.g., eucalyptus in the Shola grasslands and Malabar silk-cotton trees in the wet terai grasslands of the Himalayas, cause disruptions in the region.
• Large-Scale Infrastructure and Development Projects: Often encroach on open ecosystems, leading to habitat loss and fragmentation.
• Overgrazing: In the Sahel region of Africa, overgrazing by livestock has resulted in the soil degradation, loss of native vegetation, and increased susceptibility to invasive species.
• Climate Change: Increased atmospheric CO₂ levels due to climate change promote the growth of deep-rooted woody plants in grasslands.
• Intensive Agriculture: Leads to habitat destruction and biodiversity loss, soil erosion, water depletion, and pollution.

Suggestions to protect open ecosystems

• Grassland restoration projects: The Grasslands Trust (TGT) and Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE) are in the process of developing a pilot site to exhibit a working model for grasslands restoration.
• Comprehnsive studies on Woody Encroachment: To understand the adverse effects of woody encroachment on open ecosystems.
• Implement Long-Term Ecological Monitoring: Use gathered and available data to guide informed actions and policy changes for managing grasslands. E.g., The Open Ecosystems Network (OpEN) initiative aims to foster understanding of socio-ecological complexities of open ecosystems and how they are discussed in policy and public realms.
• Promote Accurate Classification: Adopt terminologies that reflect the true ecological value and importance of open ecosystems, such as grasslands, to support their conservation and appropriate use.

{GS3 – S&T – BioTech} Evolutionary and Medical Significance of Endogenous Retroviruses

• Context (TH): While most viruses have little impact on the genome, retroviruses stand out by integrating into and reshaping their host’s DNA, and may have played a crucial role in our evolution and aid in cancer treatments.

Retrovirus

Key Characteristics

• RNA Genome: Retroviruses are unique viruses with RNA as their genetic material.
• Reverse Transcriptase: Once inside a host cell, retroviruses use an enzyme called reverse transcriptase to convert their RNA into DNA, allowing the viral genetic material to be integrated into the host’s genome.
• Integration: The newly synthesised viral DNA is integrated into the host cell’s DNA by another viral enzyme called integrase. This integrated DNA is referred to as a provirus.
• Cancer Links: Some retroviruses carry oncogenes, which are genes that can induce cancer in host cells. These viruses are known as oncogenic retroviruses.
• Genetic Variability: The reverse transcription process is prone to errors, leading to a high mutation rate. This variability helps retroviruses evade the host immune system and adapt to different environments.
• Persistent Infections: Because of the integration into the host genome, retroviruses can establish long-term infections. The provirus can remain dormant for long periods, making eradication challenging.

Endogenous Retroviruses (ERVs)

• They are retroviral sequences that have become integrated into the genomes of their host species over evolutionary time.
• Unlike exogenous retroviruses, which infect organisms from outside sources, ERVs are inherited as part of the host’s genetic material.
• Despite their inactivity, ERVs can influence the host genome in various ways. E.g., they can contribute to genetic diversity, affect gene regulation, and play roles in biological processes.

Evolutionary Roles of ERVs

• Contribution to placental development: ERVs, specifically syncytins, played a crucial role in the evolution of mammals by aiding in the formation of the placenta.
• Shaping the human genome: ERVs constitute around 8% of the human genome, suggesting a significant influence on its structure and evolution.
• Involvement in cell differentiation: ERVs, like MERVL-gag, participate in the critical transition from totipotency to pluripotency during embryonic development.

Medical Relevance of ERVs

• Potential role in cancer development: The LTR10 retroelement has been implicated in affecting tumor formation in colorectal cancer, suggesting a link between ERVs and disease.
• Biomarker for preeclampsia: A specific ERV-derived RNA has been identified as a potential biomarker for early-onset preeclampsia.

{Prelims – Sci – Bio – Diseases} Oropouche Fever

• Context (IT): The Oropouche virus has recorded its first deaths in Brazil.

• It is a zoonotic arboviral disease caused by the Oropouche virus (OROV).
• It was first detected in Trinidad and Tobago (Caribbean Island Nation) in 1955.
• Symptoms: Similar to flu, but in severe cases, it can lead to meningitis.
• Transmission: By arthropod vectors midges and mosquitoes. However, it cannot be transmitted from human to human.
• Treatment: There is currently no cure, antiviral medicine, or vaccine available.

Read More > Diseases Caused by Microorganisms