Current Affairs – February 28, 2025

{GS1 – A&C – Sites} Ancient Tea Horse Road

Context (IE): Chinese Ambassador to India, highlighted historical significance of the Tea Horse Road.

Also known as the “Chamadao“ in Chinese, it was a vast trade network rather than a single route connecting China to the Indian subcontinent through Tibet.
Origin: It originated during the rule of the Tang Dynasty in China (618-907 CE) and became more structured during the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE).
Expansion: It stretched across more than 2,000 km, linking China, Tibet, Nepal, India, and Bangladesh.
Major Cities along the Route: Key trade hubs included Dali and Lijiang in Yunnan province, Lhasa in Tibet, and multiple branching paths into Nepal, India, and Bangladesh.

Credit: Indian Express

Importance of the Tea Horse Road

Early Trade Records: Buddhist monk Yijing (635-713 CE) recorded exchange of sugar, textiles, and rice noodles from China, while Tibet and India provided horses, leather, gold, saffron, and medicinal herbs.
Economic and Military: Tea was pressed into “bricks” for easy transport and even used as currency in Tibet. Sturdy Tibetan horses played a crucial role in China’s defence against Mongol invaders.
Economic Control: Chinese authorities regulated trade by setting up official trading posts at border counties, ensuring government oversight on transactions.
Art and Culture: Cultural and technological exchanges over 800 years have created unique local architecture, art, landscape, culture and social life.
- It facilitated the spread of Buddhism from India to China and Tibet, influencing religious practices.

Reasons for the Decline of the Tea Horse Road

World War II: During WWII, the road was used to transport supplies as Japan controlled China’s coastline and air routes. However, after the war, its significance declined.
Establishment of People’s Republic of China (1949): Led to road construction and modernization, reducing need for traditional trade routes.
End of Traditional Porters: Mao Zedong’s land reforms ended the practice of human porters carrying heavy loads, further diminishing the old trade network.

Way Forward

Though trade disappeared, China has promoted tourism along the route. Lijiang, a key hub, became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997, preserving the cultural legacy of the Tea Horse Road.
Ancient Tea Horse Road stands as a testament to the enduring power of trade and cultural exchange in shaping human history, highlighting the interconnectedness of civilisations across diverse cultures.

{GS2 – IR – India-US} US Gold Card Visa **

Context (IE): US President announced a new $5 million “gold card” visa, replacing the EB-5 program, offering a direct route to US citizenship for wealthy investors.

EB-5 Visa Program

Established: 1990, aimed at boosting the US economy through foreign investment.
Required a minimum investment and the creation of a minimum of 10 jobs for American workers.
Cap on Number of Annual Visas with a reservation for visas for high-unemployment areas.
Widely used by Indians and Chinese investors.
Issues: Accusations of fraud, misuse of real estate projects, and exploitation by elites.

Gold Card Visa

A high-cost investment-based visa allowing permanent residency and citizenship.
Investment Requirement: $5 million (₹43 crore) with no explicit job creation mandate.
Eligibility: Open to wealthy individuals, including business owners and corporate sponsors.
Processing: Likely to be faster than EB-5 to encourage participation.

Comparison: EB-5 vs. Gold Card Visa

Feature	EB-5 Visa	Gold Card Visa
Investment Required	$1.05 million ($800,000 in TEAs)	$5 million (₹43 crore)
Job Creation Mandate	Yes (10 jobs required)	No
Path to Citizenship	Yes	Yes
Fraud Risk	Higher due to fund mismanagement	Lower due to direct payment
Criticism	Allegations of misuse and fraud	“Citizenship for sale” concerns

Also refer to H1-B Visa Program

{GS2 – IR – India-US} US Sanctions on Indian Companies

Context (IE): US has imposed sanctions on 4 Indian companies as part of its “Maximum Pressure” campaign against Iran.

Reasons for US Sanctions

Alleged Evasion of Sanctions: Accused of being part of a “shadow fleet” facilitating Iranian oil trade despite restrictions.
Collaboration with Iran: Allegedly worked with Iran’s National Iranian Oil Company & affiliates to bypass US and Western sanctions. (US claims Iran uses oil exports to fund its military & proxy groups).
Disrupting the Shadow Network: Sanctions target secret oil transfers, fake documentation, and disguised vessel ownership to curb Iran’s economic influence.

‘Shadow Fleet’ is a covert network of vessels used to evade sanctions on Iranian oil trade by employing false documentation, fake identities & manipulated tracking. These tankers conduct ship-to-ship transfers outside jurisdictional limits to disguise oil origins, allegedly funding Iran’s military and proxy groups.

Effects of US Sanctions on Indian Companies

Restricted access to US financial system. Frozen assets and disrupted international trade operations.
Global banks and companies may avoid transactions with these entities.
Increased difficulties in the shipping industry due to compliance concerns.
Potential diplomatic strain between India and the US.

Global Sanctions Policy

Diplomatic Sanctions: Expelling diplomats or suspending international memberships; Halting peace negotiations or diplomatic talks.
Military Sanctions: Arms embargoes or cancellation of defence agreements; Suspension of military cooperation.

Economic Sanctions

Import/Export Restrictions: Blocking supply of goods, technology, or military equipment (e.g., US sanctions on Iran’s oil trade).
Trade Restrictions: Banning businesses from operating in certain regions (e.g., US bans on Chinese firms like Huawei and ZTE).
Banking & Currency Controls: Freezing assets or restricting financial transactions (e.g., Russia’s removal from SWIFT).

Way Forward

India must balance between Iran (for energy needs), US (for trade relations) & its strategic interests.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – Elections} Delimitation *

Context (IE | TH | IE): Tamil Nadu CM has called for an all-party meeting to discuss the delimitation exercise, raising concerns over its impact on federalism and representation.

Delimitation

Delimitation is the process of redrawing parliamentary and assembly constituency boundaries based on population changes.
Historical Occurrences: Conducted in 1952, 1963, 1973, and 2002.
Constitutional Basis:
- Article 81 caps Lok Sabha strength at 550 (530 from states, 20 from UTs) and mandates uniform seat-to-population ratios across states.
- Article 82 mandates Parliament to enact a Delimitation Act after every Census, and Article 170 provides for the division of state constituencies.
42nd Amendment (1976): Froze seat allocation till the first Census after 2000 to avoid penalising states with lower population growth.
84th Amendment (2002): Extended the freeze until the first Census after 2026.

Delimitation Commission

Composition: Appointed by the President, it includes a retired Supreme Court judge (Chairperson), the Chief Election Commissioner, and State Election Commissioners.
Independence: Functions without executive influence.
Authority: Its decisions are final, cannot be challenged in court, and are beyond modification by Parliament or State Assemblies.

Concerns Over Representation and Federalism

Census Delay: The postponed 2021 Census raises concerns about using outdated data for delimitation.
Unequal Representation: Northern states (UP & Bihar) with higher population growth may gain more seats, reducing the share of southern states (Tamil Nadu & Kerala with lower population growth).
Political Imbalance: Redistribution could shift electoral dynamics in favour of states with rapid population growth.
Impact on Southern States: Fear of losing political influence despite better development indicators and stable populations.
Regional Parties’ Concerns: Delimitation may favor national parties with strongholds in populous states.

Way Forward

Conducting the Census: Essential for an accurate and updated population count before delimitation.
Equitable Representation: Consideration of governance efficiency, not just population size.
Legislative Safeguards: Ensuring redistribution does not disproportionately favor high-growth states.
Federal Consensus: Engaging all stakeholders to prevent political and regional friction.
Alternative Representation Models: Exploring weighted representation or upper house reforms to maintain federal balance.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – PRI} Panchayat Devolution Index *

Context (IE): The Ministry of Panchayati Raj released “Status of Devolution to Panchayats in States – An Indicative Evidence-Based Ranking”, also called Panchayat Devolution Index (PDI) 2024.

Panchayati Raj in India

Rooted in ancient village councils, later formalised into a structured governance model.
73rd Constitutional Amendment Act (1992) inserted part IX and granted PRIs constitutional status on April 24, 1993, introducing a three-tier system at the village, block, and district levels.
National Panchayati Raj Day: Celebrated on April 24 annually.

Significance of PRIs

Promotes grassroots democracy by empowering local communities.
Ensures participatory governance, allowing people to influence local decision-making.
Plays a crucial role in rural development, addressing local issues like infrastructure, climate change, and urban migration.

Panchayat Devolution Index (PDI)

A composite index evaluating the devolution of powers and resources to Panchayats across states & UTs.
Developed by Indian Institute of Public Administration to measure the effectiveness of decentralisation as per Article 243G of the Constitution.
PDI Assessment Criteria: Evaluates Panchayats on six dimensions, legal framework, delegated functions, financial autonomy, functionaries, capacity building and accountability.

Key Findings of PDI 2024

Overall Performance Trends

Improved devolution from 39.9% in 2013-14 to 43.9% in 2021-22.
Increase in Panchayats from 2.48 lakh in 2013-14 to 2.62 lakh in 2024.

Top and Bottom Performing States

Top Performing States: Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
Lowest Ranked: Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu, Puducherry, and Ladakh.

Representation in Panchayats

Women’s Representation: Most states have 50% reservation, but seven states, including Haryana, Punjab, and Tripura, fall below this; the national average stands at 46.44% in 2024.
SC, ST, and OBC Representation: National averages SCs (18.03%), STs (16.22%), and OBCs (19.15%).

Challenges Faced by Panchayats

Leadership Disruptions: Frequent rotation of reserved seats for SCs, STs, and women hampers leadership continuity.
Weak District Planning: District Planning Committees (DPCs) exist but lack proper implementation.
Financial Dependence: 80% of Panchayat revenue comes from central grants, 15% from state grants, and only 1% from own tax revenue.
Funding Challenges: Significant delays in fund releases impact Panchayat operations.
Unimplemented SFC Recommendations: Non-implementation of State Finance Commission recommendations affects resource allocation.
Lack of Capacity Building: Elected representatives lack training in governance, budgeting, and planning, with many Panchayats facing staff shortages.
Low Accountability: Weak social audits, limited Gram Sabha participation, and poor financial disclosure reduce transparency and oversight.
Infrastructure Gaps: Only 7 states/UTs have 100% pucca Panchayat offices.

Recommendations by PDI for Strengthening Panchayati Raj

Develop a two-year course in Local Public Service Management for Panchayat functionaries, focusing on public systems, financial management, personnel management, law, and e-governance.
Financial Reforms: Ensure timely fund transfers, full implementation of State Finance Commission recommendations, and enhance local tax revenue.
Transparency Measures: Conduct regular audits & enforce financial transparency to prevent fund misuse.
Infrastructure Development: Provide special grants for roads, sanitation, and water under schemes like Jal Jeevan Mission and Swachh Bharat Mission.
Institutional Strengthening: Upgrade Panchayat Bhawans as service hubs for schemes like Ayushman Bharat and fully devolve powers for better governance.
Autonomy in Key Schemes: Empower Panchayats in decision-making for MGNREGA and PMAY to enhance efficiency.
Capacity Building: Conduct governance and financial management training for elected representatives.
Digitalization: Expand digital infrastructure for seamless service delivery and scheme implementation.

Context (IE): The U.S. reported its first measles-related death in a decade, with the outbreak primarily affecting a rural Mennonite community.

Measles is a highly contagious disease caused by a virus. It first affects the respiratory tract.
Symptoms: High fever, cough, runny nose and a telltale rash all over the body.
Risk Group: Measles can affect anyone but is most common in children.
Severity: It can cause severe disease, complications, and even death.
- Complications include blindness, encephalitis (an infection causing brain swelling and potentially brain damage), pneumonia etc.
Spread: Infected person breathing, coughing or sneezing.
Treatment: There is no specific treatment for measles.
Prevention: MMR Vaccine (Measles, Mumps, Rubella) is highly effective in preventing measles.
- MMR vaccine is part of India’s Universal Immunization Programme.

Mennonites are a stream of Anabaptist Christians. The Mennonites are named after Menno Simons (1496-1561), a Dutch priest.

{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Cali Fund: A Global Initiative for Biodiversity Finance

Context (DTE): The Cali Fund was launched at 16^th Conference of Parties (COP16) to the UNCBD in Rome to boost biodiversity finance.

About the Fund

Supports biodiversity conservation by mobilising funds from private businesses using genetic data.
Administered by UNDP and UNEP with the Multi-Partner Trust Fund Office (MPTFO).

Significance

First Biodiversity Fund under the UN to receive direct corporate contributions.
Fair Benefit Sharing: Companies benefiting from Digital Sequence Information (DSI) are now required to contribute to the Cali Fund to support biodiversity initiatives.
Supports Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework: Aids in achieving the goal of halting and reversing biodiversity loss by 2030.
Community Support: At least 50% of resources from the Cali fund will be allocated to indigenous peoples and local communities for biodiversity protection.

Digital Sequence Information (DSI) refers to genetic data from plants, animals and microorganisms, crucial for research and applications in pharmaceuticals, agriculture, biotechnology, and cosmetics.

{GS3 – Envi – Species} Cape Vultures (Gyps coprotheres)

Context (DTE): Cape Vultures spotted after 30 years in South Africa’s Eastern Cape.

Credit: eBird

Also known as Cape griffon and Kolbe’s vulture, it is an Old World vulture native to southern Africa.
- Old World vultures are vultures that are found in the Old World, i.e. continents of Europe, Asia and Africa, and belong to the family Accipitridae, which also includes eagles and hawks.
Distribution: South Africa, Lesotho, Botswana and Mozambique.
- Only small, non-breeding populations persist in Zimbabwe and Namibia.
Habitat: Forest, Savanna, shrubland, Grassland, Rocky areas, Desert, Artificial/Terrestrial etc.
Physical Description: Creamy-buff body plumage, which contrasts with its dark flight and tail feathers and its black bill. Adults can be distinguished by their honey-coloured eyes and naked, bluish throat.
It closely resembles the white-backed vulture; however, it is larger and has yellow irises.
Diet: Feed on carrion (dead carcasses) and do not kill their own prey. They search for food in groups.
Conservation Status: IUCN: Vulnerable | CITES: Appendix II.
Threat: Hunting, poisoned carcasses, Collisions with power lines and vehicles etc.

{GS3 – Envi – Species} Chinese Alligator

Context (DTE): The Chinese alligator, which inspired the mythical dragon, is critically endangered; only a few remain in fragmented Anhui pockets.

Key Features of the Chinese Alligator

One of the Smallest Crocodilian Species (1.5–2.1 meters in length) with a short, broad and blunt snout adapted for crushing shells of molluscs and crustaceans.
Armored Body with bony scales (osteoderms) covering the body for protection.

Habitat and Conservation

Semi-Aquatic Adaptation: Prefers slow-moving freshwater wetlands, ponds, and marshes.
Restricted Habitat: Native to freshwater wetlands, once widespread across the Yangtze and Yellow River basins, it is now confined to isolated Anhui wetlands in China.
Conservation Status: IUCN: Critically Endangered; CITES: Appendix I
Key threats: Habitat destruction due to extensive agricultural development, especially rice farming; ingestion of poisoned prey and potential exploitation for food.

Source: CITES

{GS3 – S&T – Misc} National Science Day 2025: India’s strides in Science

Context (PIB): The National Science Day is celebrated on 28^t^h February.

About National Science Day

National Science Day is celebrated every year on 28^th February 1987 to commemorate the discovery of the ‘Raman Effect’ made by the eminent physicist Sir C.V. Raman.
- This groundbreaking discovery laid the foundation for Raman Spectroscopy.
C.V. Raman: In 1930, in recognition of his contribution, C.V. Raman was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, making him the first Indian to win a Nobel Prize in science.
Objective: To spread the message of the importance of science and its application among the people.
Theme of National Science Day 2025: “Empowering Indian Youth for Global Leadership in Science & Innovation for VIKSIT BHARAT’.

Raman Spectroscopy

Raman Spectroscopy is a non-destructive analytical technique based on the interaction of light with chemical bonds within materials.
Applications: The technique is widely used in various fields, including:
- Chemistry: To identify molecular structures and compositions.
- Biology & Medicine: To detect diseases and study biomolecules.
- Materials Science: For characterising materials, including nanomaterials.
- Forensics: To analyse trace evidence in criminal investigations.

Raman Effect

Raman Effect: Refers to change in the wavelength of light when it interacts with molecules in a transparent material.
Occurs Due to: The inelastic scattering of photons, where the energy of light changes after interacting with molecular vibrations.
Significance: It provides valuable insights into molecular structure, chemical bonding, and vibrational properties, making it a crucial tool in scientific research.
Raman Effect and Raman Scattering: They are closely related but describe different aspects of the same phenomenon observed in Raman Spectroscopy.

Raman Scattering

Raman Scattering: Refers to the specific process in which light interacts with molecules and scatters in different directions. It occurs as part of the Raman Effect.
Two types of scattered light:
1. Rayleigh Scattering: No energy change (elastic scattering).
2. Raman Scattering: Energy changes due to molecular vibrations (inelastic scattering).
Raman scattering helps in material analysis, chemical identification, and biomedical applications.

Science and Technology in India

Gross Expenditure on Research & Development: More than doubled to ₹1.27 lakh crore (nearly $15 billion) in the decade ending March 2021.
- However, this is just 0.64% of GDP compared to a global average of 2.6%.
National R&D Expenditure Sectorwise: Central Government (43.7%), State Governments (6.7%), with Private Sector Industry contributing 36.4% during 2020–21.
- In most of the developed and emerging economies, the participation of the private sector is generally more than 50%.

Ancient India’s Contributions to Global Science
Idea of Zero	Aryabhata introduced the symbol for zero, enabling modern arithmetic operations.
Binary Numbers	Pingala introduced the concept of binary numbers in his work on poetic meters.
Chakravala Method of Algorithms	Brahmagupta devised an early algorithm to solve quadratic equations.
Theory of Atom	Kanad proposed an atomic theory centuries before John Dalton.
Heliocentric Theory	Aryabhata described Earth’s rotation and revolution around the Sun.
Plastic Surgery	Sushruta developed advanced surgical techniques, including rhinoplasty.
Cataract Surgery	Sushruta performed the first recorded cataract surgeries.
Ayurveda	Charaka laid the foundation for holistic medicine and preventive healthcare.
Iron-Cased Rockets	Tipu Sultan developed iron-cased rockets, influencing modern warfare.
Other	Decimal System, Numeral Notations, Fibonacci Numbers

Women in STEM in India

Highest percentage of women STEM graduates in the world, around 40%. Despite this, their share of STEM jobs in the country is very low at just 14%.
Women participation in extramural R&D projects: Rised to 25% in 2019–20 from 13% in 2000–01.

Initiatives

WISE-KIRAN (Women in Science and Engineering-KIRAN) scheme: A comprehensive program designed to support women at various stages of their scientific careers.
WISE-PhD and WISE-Post Doctoral Fellowship (WISE-PDF): Encourages women to pursue research in basic and applied sciences.
Vigyan Jyoti Program: Encourages female students to pursue higher education and careers in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics, and Medicine).
Consolidation of University Research for Innovation and Excellence (CURIE) Program: Empowers exclusive women’s universities by supporting research facilities in basic and applied sciences.

Key advancements in Science and Technology: 2024 Highlights

Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF): Launched under the ANRF Act 2023, it is accelerating India’s research and development ecosystem.
- Introduced key programs like PM Early Career Research Grant (PMECRG), EV Mission etc.
National Quantum Mission (NQM): NQM is positioning India as a leader in quantum computing, communication, sensing, and materials.
National Supercomputing Mission (NSM): India’s supercomputing infrastructure has significantly expanded, reaching 32 PetaFlops with the addition of 5 PetaFlops in 2024.
- The largest supercomputing system, commissioned at the Inter-University Accelerator Centre (IUAC), New Delhi, boasts 3 PetaFlops of computing power.
BharatGen initiative: launched under National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems, for development of India’s first multimodal, multilingual Large Language Model for Generative AI.
Climate Research and Risk Mapping for Disaster Preparedness: India launched 4 new Centres of Excellence focused on risk mapping for floods and droughts.
INSPIRE Program: About 34000 INSPIRE Scholars received financial support to pursue higher education and research in Science & Technology.

India’s Global Standing in Innovation and IP

India Secured the 39th rank in the Global Innovation Index 2024 and 6th position in global Intellectual Property (IP) filings, as per the WIPO report.
The Network Readiness Index (NRI) 2024 also marked India’s rise to 49th place from 79th in 2019, showcasing advancements in ICT infrastructure and digital transformation.

{GS3 – S&T – Space} SPHEREx Mission

Context (TH): NASA is scheduled to launch SPHEREx Missions.

SPHEREx (Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe, Epoch of Reionization and Ices Explorer) mission will provide an all-sky spectral survey.
Primary Goal: To explore the origins of the universe, analyse the formation of galaxies, and detect water and organic molecules in interstellar space.

Credit: NASA

Key Features

Comprehensive Sky Survey: SPHEREx will map the entire sky every six months, something even the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) cannot do in its lifetime.
- Over its two-year planned mission, SPHEREx will collect data in 102 different colour bands from more than 450 million galaxies and over 100 million stars in the Milky Way.
Multi-Wavelength Observations: SPHEREx will observe the sky in optical and near-infrared light. While the human eye can see optical light, infrared light is invisible to it.
- JSWT specialises in infrared observations, and the Hubble Telescope focuses on optical light.
Studying Cosmic Inflation: By mapping the entire sky, SPHEREx will help astronomers analyse the patterns left behind by inflation, offering clues about the fundamental nature of the universe.
- Cosmic inflation refers to the rapid expansion of the universe immediately after the Big Bang.
Identifying Water & Life-Forming Molecules: It will detect water and biogenic molecules (organic compounds necessary for life) in interstellar clouds within our Milky Way.

Significance

First-of-its-Kind All-Sky Spectral Survey: SPHEREx will scan the entire sky repeatedly, creating an unmatched cosmic map.
Future Missions: Information collected will guide JWST, ground-based telescopes, and future missions.