Current Affairs – February 21, 2025

{GS1 – AH – Sites} Did the Iron Age in India Begin in Tamil Nadu?

Context (TH): Tamil Nadu CM claimed the Iron Age began on Tamil soil 5,300 years ago, citing archaeological findings from multiple sites.

Iron Age in India: Timeline and Evolution

Initially believed to have started around 700-600 BCE.
Radiocarbon dating pushed the timeline back to 1800 BCE, with evidence of iron smelting in the Central Ganga Plain and Eastern Vindhyas.
Recent Tamil Nadu discoveries suggest iron metallurgy was established as early as 3300 BCE.

Key Iron Age Sites in India

Central and Northern India

Raja Nala-ka-tila (UP): Iron tools & slag found in pre-NBP (Northern Black Polished) deposits (1400–800 BCE).
Malhar (1200 BCE) and Dadupur (1000 BCE) in UP were major iron metallurgy centers with evidence of large-scale smelting and furnaces.
Hastinapur (UP): Iron tools associated with the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture (1000 BCE).
Takshashila (Punjab, Pakistan): Iron tools found in Gandhara settlements (800 BCE).

Western and Central India

Ahar (Rajasthan): Chalcolithic culture (2500–1700 BCE) showed early evidence of iron artifacts.
Naikund (Vidarbha, Maharashtra): Discovery of an iron smelting furnace (1000 BCE).
Mahurjhari (Nagpur, Maharashtra): Horse ornaments made of copper with iron knobs (800 BCE).

South India

Tamil Nadu’s ancient iron metallurgy sites include Mayiladumparai (3300 BCE, India’s oldest iron use), Paiyampalli (1200 BCE, large-scale smelting), Sivagalai (1100 BCE, early smelting), and Adichanallur (1000 BCE, Megalithic iron tools and burial urns).

Iron Age in Tamil Nadu: New Discoveries

State Archaeology Department (2025): Confirms iron smelting began between 3,345 BCE–2,953 BCE.
Limited availability of copper ores in South India might have led to early adoption of iron technology.
Excavations in Sivagalai, Adichanallur, Kilnamandi, and Mayiladumparai indicate that Tamil Nadu’s Iron Age predates much of North India.

Significance of Tamil Nadu’s Findings

Challenges existing narratives that the Iron Age in India originated in the Central Ganga Plain.
Suggests independent technological evolution in South India.

{GS1 – Geo – EG – Mineral Resources} Conflict Minerals

Context (AJ): Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has initiated legal action against Apple’s subsidiaries in France and Belgium, accusing the company of sourcing conflict minerals from sub-Saharan Africa.

What Are Conflict Minerals?

Minerals extracted from conflict-affected regions, where profits fund armed groups and human rights abuses.
Key Conflict Minerals (3TGs): Tin, Tantalum, Tungsten, and Gold, classified by OECD.
Major Sources: DRC, Sierra Leone, Venezuela, and other conflict-prone areas.
Extraction Process: Sourced from ores like cassiterite (tin), columbite-tantalite (tantalum), and wolframite (tungsten).

Uses of Conflict Minerals

Tantalum: Used in capacitors for mobile phones, computers, and jet turbines.
Tin: Found in solder for electronic circuits, automobile parts, and food packaging.
Tungsten: Used in automotive industries, cutting tools, and light bulb filaments.
Gold: Primarily used in jewelry, electronic devices, and as a conductor in circuits.

Implications of Conflict Minerals

Financing Armed Groups: Mineral trade profits fund rebel groups and prolonged conflicts.
Forced Labor & Exploitation: Miners, incl. children, face dangerous & exploitative working conditions.
Corruption & Money Laundering: Illicit trade of minerals supports criminal networks and corruption.
Environmental Degradation: Unregulated mining leads to deforestation, water pollution & habitat destruction.
Human Rights Violations: Communities suffer from displacement, violence & lack of economic development.

Legal Provisions Regarding Conflict Minerals

OECD Guidelines & Due Diligence: Framework for responsible mineral sourcing, preventing conflict financing through a five-step process (transparency, risk assessment, audits, mitigation, public reporting).
EU Regulations on 3TG: Mandates responsible sourcing, transparency, and ethical mineral imports under OECD standards.
Dodd-Frank Act (USA): Requires companies to disclose the use of conflict minerals in their products and report supply chain risks.

{GS2 – IR – Groupings} Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries

Context (ToI): Brazil approved the entry into OPEC+.

About OPEC

OPEC is a permanent intergovernmental organization of 12 oil-exporting developing nations.
Headquarters: Vienna, Austria.
Formation: At Baghdad Conference in 1960, by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela.
Objective: To coordinate and unify petroleum policies among Member Countries to secure pricing for producers, supply for consumers, and return on capital for investors.
Members (12): Algeria, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, UAE and Venezuela.

Significance

OPEC controls 79.1% of the world’s proven crude oil reserves, produces 39.7% of global crude oil, and exports about 60% of the world’s petroleum.

About OPEC+

The OPEC and 10 of the world’s leading non-OPEC oil exporters are known collectively as OPEC+.
Formed in 2016 in response to falling oil prices driven by significant increase in U.S. shale oil output.
Members (22): OPEC (12) + Russia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Bahrain, Brunei, Malaysia, Mexico, Oman, South Sudan and Sudan.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – Emergency} President’s Rule in Manipur

Context (TH | TH | TH): President’s Rule was imposed in Manipur in February 2025 after CM N. Biren Singh resigned amid ongoing ethnic violence and political instability.

Historical Context and Need for President’s Rule

Origin: Derived from Section 93 of the Government of India Act, 1935, which empowered the Governor-General and Governors to handle constitutional breakdowns.
Necessity Stressed by: B.R. Ambedkar, Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar, K. Santhanam & Thakur Das Bhargava.

Key Objectives

Protect unity and integrity of the nation in a diverse society.
Address governance breakdown and uphold law and order.
Strengthen federalism while ensuring cooperation between Centre and States.
Protect individual liberty when state machinery collapses.
Ensure constitutional compliance by state governments.
Secure states from external aggression and internal disturbances under Article 355.

President’s Rule

President’s Rule, also known as State Emergency or Constitutional Emergency, is a provision under Article 356 of the Constitution.
It allows the central government to take direct control of a state when the state government is unable to function according to constitutional provisions (on receipt of a report from the Governor of a state).
The President can assume all or any of the functions of the state government.

Important Provisions

President’s Rule can be imposed for six months initially. It can be extended for a maximum of three years with the approval of Parliament every six months.
Both Houses of Parliament must approve the imposition of the President’s Rule within two months.
The President can revoke the proclamation at any time. If the Lok Sabha rejects the continuation of the President’s Rule, it must be revoked.
The state assembly is suspended or dissolved during the President’s Rule.

Judicial Interventions and Commission Recommendations

S.R. Bommai Case (1994): The Supreme Court ruled that imposition is subject to judicial review and recommended a floor test for the government majority.
88th Amendment (2003): Inserted a new clause (4) in Article 361, giving immunity to the Governor for the exercise of powers under Article 356.
Sarkaria Commission (1988): Use the President’s Rule sparingly and issue a warning before imposition.
Punchhi Commission (2010): Recommended a time-bound response from the President and non-dissolution of the state assembly before parliamentary approval.

Article 365 provides additional grounds for the President to invoke Article 356.
If a state government fails to comply with or implement directions given by the central government under constitutional provisions, it can lead to the imposition of the President’s Rule.

Instances of President’s Rule in India

Total Occurrences: Imposed 135 times since 1950 across 35 States and Union Territories.
Most Affected States: Manipur (11 times, including 2025); Uttar Pradesh (10 times); Jammu & Kashmir (longest duration – 15 years); Punjab (over 10 years due to insurgency); Puducherry (over 7 years).
First Imposition: Punjab (1951) after CM Gopi Chand Bhargava resigned.
Longest Single Instance in Manipur: 1969–1972 (2 years, 157 days).

Political Aspects of President’s Rule

More Common in Opposition-Ruled States: Often used when Centre & State govts are from different parties.
Same-Party Impositions: Occurred in Andhra Pradesh (1973), Assam (1981), Gujarat (1974), Karnataka (1990), and Manipur (2025).
Historical Political Use: President’s Rule was imposed by the Janata Party (1977) and Indira Gandhi (1980) to dismiss opposition-ruled state governments.
Supreme Court Refused to Interfere in these political decisions.

Impact of President’s Rule on State Governance

State Administration: Governor, acting on behalf of the President, runs the State with assistance from bureaucrats or advisors.
Legislative Powers: President can delegate State legislative functions to Parliament under Article 357.
Financial Control: President can approve State expenditure from the Consolidated Fund.

Suspended Animation of Legislature

Definition: The State Assembly remains intact but non-functional during President’s Rule.
Historical Data: Out of 111 cases until 2015, the Assembly was dissolved in 53 cases while the rest remained in suspended animation.
Legal Perspective: The Bommai case mandates temporary suspension, with Assembly revival upon President’s Rule revocation, and the Supreme Court warns against arbitrary dissolution.
Criticism: Suspended animation lacks constitutional backing, as Parliament assuming all legislative powers makes an inactive Assembly redundant.

Reasons for Imposition of President’s Rule in Manipur

Ethnic Conflict: Ongoing violence between Meitei and Kuki-Zo communities since May 2023, with over 250 casualties and 60,000 displaced.
Political Instability: Resignation of CM Biren Singh and BJP’s failure to decide on a successor.
Failure of Governance: Inability to maintain law and order effectively.

Way Forward for Manipur

Restoring Normalcy: Address ethnic conflicts impartially to rebuild trust in governance.
Rule of Law: Ensure that law and order are handled without political bias.
Institutional Reforms: Strengthen administrative mechanisms to prevent future breakdowns.
State Sovereignty: Balance between Central intervention & State autonomy to uphold federalism.

{GS2 – Polity – IC – FRs} Karnataka Implements Right to Die with Dignity

Context (TH): Karnataka implemented SC’s ruling on passive euthanasia, becoming the second State after Kerala to do so.

Passive Euthanasia

Withholding or withdrawing life-sustaining treatment to allow a terminally ill patient to die naturally.
International Practices: Netherlands, Belgium and Canada allow euthanasia under strict conditions.
Legal in India as per SC rulings in 2018 & 2023, under strict medical and legal conditions.
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare issued draft guidelines titled “Guidelines for Withdrawal of Life Support in Terminally Ill Patients.”
Goa (June 2024) became the first state to register a living will.

A living will is a legal document specifying an individual’s preferences for medical treatment if they become incapacitated. It must be signed by the individual in the presence of two witnesses and countersigned by a Judicial Magistrate of First Class (JMFC).

SC’s Directives on Passive Euthanasia

Aruna Shanbaug Case, 2011: Allowed passive euthanasia for Aruna Shanbaug, a nurse who remained in a vegetative state for decades after a brutal assault. The SC made a distinction between active and passive euthanasia, permitting the latter under specific conditions.
Legal Recognition (2018 & 2023): Right to die with dignity under Article 21 of the Constitution, allowing the withdrawal of life support in terminal cases contingent upon presence of a ‘living will.’
Conditions: Allowed for terminally ill, vegetative state, or prolonged suffering.
Advance Directive (Living Will): Any adult can predefine treatment choices, with two representatives.
Simplified Process (2023): Streamlined withdrawal of life support with legal-medical guidelines.

Approval Process for Life Support Withdrawal

Medical Boards: Primary and Secondary Medical Boards (each with three senior doctors) must be set up.
District Health Officer: Must be involved in evaluating the case.
Judicial Oversight: Final decision requires approval of JMFC and submission to High Court Registrar.

Ethical Considerations of Euthanasia

Right to Die: Individuals should have control over their life and death, while opponents believe euthanasia undermines the sanctity of life.
Sanctity vs. Quality of Life: Religious views emphasize sanctity, while others stress humane choices when quality of life is irreversibly diminished.
Beneficence: Seen as relief from unbearable pain, but critics advocate for better palliative care.

Arguments Against Passive Euthanasia

Potential Abuse: Concerns about misuse, non-consensual euthanasia, or prioritizing euthanasia over healthcare improvements.
Slippery Slope Argument: Fear that legal euthanasia may lead to non-consensual cases or societal pressure on vulnerable individuals.
Undermines Medical Ethics: World Medical Association (WMA) opposes euthanasia stating that they are inconsistent with the core principles of medical practice.
Indian Medical Association (IMA) raised concerns about legal risks for doctors following euthanasia guidelines.

About IMA

Largest medical association in India with 3.5 lakh members across 28 State & 5 UT branches.
Established in 1928, played a role in India’s freedom struggle & became a founding member of WMA.

Arguments in Favor of Euthanasia

Dignity in Death: By relieving patients from unbearable suffering.
Avoidance of Futile Medical Treatment that offer no hope of recovery.
Financial Relief: To families by avoiding prolonged and costly treatments.
Judicial Recognition for the Right to Die with dignity (Article 21) in the Aruna Shanbaug case.
Organ Donation: It can potentially save other lives.

{GS3 – IE – Banking} Deposit Insurance

Context (IE): Finance Ministry is considering increasing deposit insurance limit under DICGC Act, 1961.

What is Deposit Insurance?

A protection scheme that ensures depositors get their money back (up to a limit) in case of bank failures.
Managed by Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation (DICGC), a subsidiary of RBI .

Features of Deposit Insurance Scheme

Insurance Limit: Each depositor is insured upto ₹5 lakh per bank, including principal & interest.
Coverage Scope:
- Included: Savings accounts, fixed deposits, current accounts, recurring deposits.
- Not Included: Deposits of foreign governments, central/state governments, inter-bank deposits, and deposits with State Land Development Banks.
Treatment of Multiple Accounts: Deposits across different branches of the same bank are clubbed under one insurance cover.

DICGC

Formed in 1978 under Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation Act, 1961; Operates under the Department of Financial Services, Ministry of Finance.
Objective: To protect depositors and maintain trust in the banking system.
Key Functions:
- Insures deposits of commercial, cooperative, regional rural, and foreign banks in India.
- Collects insurance premiums from banks based on their risk profile.
- Pays insured depositors in case of bank failure.

Deposit Insurance

Deposit insurance, introduced in 1962 with ₹1,500 cover, was raised to ₹5 lakh after the 2020 Punjab and Maharashtra Cooperative (PMC) Bank crisis.
Initially covered 287 banks; now includes 1,997 banks (as of March 2024).
India thus, insures 97.8% of total accounts, exceeding the 80% global benchmark.

Key Provisions of the DICGC Amendment Act, 2021

Section 18A: Ensures depositors receive insured funds within 90 days, even for banks under prior restrictions.
Increased Premium Flexibility: RBI can raise the insurance premium above the previous 0.15% cap based on banking stability.
Repayment Obligation: Banks or transferees must repay DICGC after depositors are compensated.
Penal Interest: Delays in repayment attract up to 2% penal interest above the repo rate.

Deposit Insurance Claim Process

In Case of Bank Failure

Bank Under Restrictions: RBI places restrictions or a moratorium on the bank.
Claim Submission: The bank submits a depositor claims list to DICGC within 45 days.
Verification: DICGC verifies claims within 30 days.
Payment: Depositors receive insured amounts within 15 days, totaling 90 days from restriction imposition.

In Case of Liquidation

DICGC pays claims to the liquidator within two months of receiving the claim list.
The liquidator distributes funds to insured depositors.

{GS3 – S&T – ISRO} ISRO’s Space Technologies for Civilian Applications

Context (IE): ISRO-developed space technologies are now benefiting various industries, while ISRO retains IPR with non-exclusive industry access.

Applications of ISRO Technologies

Chandrayaan-3 Landing Software: Enables collision prevention systems in automobiles.
3D LiDAR Camera: Used for people counting in crowds, parcel measurement, near-terrain flight assistance, pedestrian detection, and gesture recognition in consumer electronics.
Rocket Propulsion Pressure Sensors: Help determine airbag deployment timing in vehicles.
Anti-Corrosive Coatings (NRCM-204): Protect metals, composites, and buildings from acid corrosion.
Benzoxazine Polymer: Used for electronic encapsulation and as a flame-retardant material.
Vibration Management System: Enables seismic isolation for buildings; reduces noise in transportation.
Lithium-Ion Battery Tech: Supports green transportation by providing cost-effective EV batteries.

{GS3 – S&T – Space} Einstein Ring

Context (IE): The European Space Agency’s (ESA) Euclid space telescope has discovered an ‘Einstein ring’, around a NGC 6505 galaxy nearly 590 million light-years away from Earth.

What is the Einstein Ring?

An Einstein ring is a ring of light around a form of dark matter, galaxy or cluster of galaxies. It is essentially an example of gravitational lensing.
They are extremely rare, less than 1% of galaxies have an Einstein ring. The first Einstein ring was discovered in 1987.
Einstein rings can be observed only through space telescopes.

Credits: The Planetary Society

Gravitational Lensing

Gravitational lensing occurs when a massive celestial body such as a galaxy cluster warps space and time causing light to bend, distort, and magnify as it passes around the massive object.
The body causing the light to curve is called a gravitational lens.
Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity predicted that light could bend and brighten around objects across the cosmos.

Credit: NASA

Significance of Studying Einstein Rings

They help scientists investigate dark matter, which has never been detected but is believed to make up 85% of the total matter in the universe.
Einstein rings enable scientists to learn about distant galaxies, which otherwise might not be visible.
They can also provide information about the expansion of the universe.

{GS3 – S&T – Space} ISRO Develops World’s Largest Vertical Propellant Mixer

Context (TOI): ISRO, in collaboration with CMTI (Central Manufacturing Technology Institute, Bengaluru), developed a 10-tonne vertical planetary mixer, enhancing India’s space sector self-reliance.

What is a Vertical Planetary Mixer?

A high-capacity mixing system for processing solid propellants used in rocket motors.
Ensures precise blending of hazardous and sensitive ingredients, crucial for rocket motor efficiency.

How It Works?

Uses multiple hydrostatic-driven agitators for uniform mixing of solid propellant components.
Operated remotely via a PLC-based control system with SCADA stations for precision and safety.

SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition): A real-time monitoring and control system for industrial processes.

Need for Solid Propellants in Space Missions

Core of Rocket Motors: Essential for propulsion in space transportation systems.
Precise Mixing Requirement: Solid propellants contain sensitive and hazardous ingredients needing controlled mixing for safety and efficiency.

Significance of the 10-Tonne Vertical Planetary Mixer

Largest Globally: Weighs 150 tonnes.
Part of Atma-Nirbhar Bharat Initiative: Strengthens self-reliance in critical space technologies.
Enhances Rocket Motor Production: Improves productivity, throughput & quality in solid propulsion systems.
Boosts Indigenous Capability: Reduces dependence on foreign technology, supporting India’s self-reliance goals.
Supports Future Space Missions: Strengthens ISRO’s launch vehicle programs, including PSLV, GSLV, and heavy-lift rockets.
Encourages Collaboration: Promotes innovation through partnerships with academia and industry in advanced space manufacturing.

{Prelims – In News} Beryllium-10 Anomaly in the Pacific Ocean

Context (TH): Scientists found a 10-million-year-old beryllium-10 anomaly in Pacific seabed rocks, possibly linked to ocean currents, a supernova, or an interstellar collision.

Discovery of the Beryllium-10 Anomaly

A 3.7 kg ferromanganese crust recovered from Central Pacific in 1976, analyzed in Germany.
Unexpected Spike: Instead of a steady decline, beryllium-10 levels unexpectedly rose 10 million yrs ago.
Verification: Multiple tests and samples from locations 3,000 km apart confirmed the anomaly.

Ferromanganese Crusts

Formed out of the metallic underwater rocks that grow from minerals in water, solidifying over millions of years.
Has growth rate of a few millimeters per million yrs, making them ideal for capturing cosmic events.
Beryllium-10, produced by cosmic rays in the atmosphere, gets embedded in these crusts and allows radioactive dating.

Possible Explanations

Changes in Ocean Circulation: Strengthened Antarctic Circumpolar Current (~12 million years ago) may have redistributed beryllium-10 deposits.
Interstellar Cloud Collision: A dense space cloud could have compressed the heliosphere, increasing cosmic ray exposure and beryllium-10 production.
Supernova Explosion: A nearby supernova may have triggered a surge in cosmic rays, causing anomaly.

Significance for Geological Dating

Independent Time Marker: Could serve as a reference point for dating ocean sediments, ice cores, and stalactites, similar to Miyake events or the Laschamp excursion.
Cross-Verification Tool: Helps synchronize different geological records for better understanding of Earth’s climate history.

{Prelims – Sci – Bio – Diseases} Polycystic Ovary Syndrome

Context (TH): PCOS is a common hormonal disorder affecting millions of women, leading to menstrual irregularities, metabolic issues, and fertility challenges.

Understanding PCOS

Endocrine disorder characterized by hormonal imbalance, chronic anovulation & metabolic disturbances.
Prevalence: Affects 6-26% of women globally; in India, the prevalence is 3.7-22.5%.
Causes: Genetic predisposition, neuroendocrine dysfunction, sedentary lifestyle, dietary habits, & obesity.

Symptoms and Diagnosis

Menstrual Irregularities: Unpredictable, heavy, or absent periods due to hormonal imbalance.
Hirsutism (excess facial hair), acne & scalp hair thinning due to excess androgens, Acanthosis nigricans (dark skin patches), enlarged ovaries, higher testosterone levels.
Infertility Risks: Disruptions in ovulation impacting reproductive health.
Metabolic Disturbances: Insulin resistance leading to weight gain.
Diagnostic Criteria: At least two of these- Irregular menstrual cycles, Elevated androgen levels (blood test or physical symptoms), Polycystic ovaries visible on ultrasound

Health Risks Associated with PCOS

Endocrine Complications: Increased testosterone levels leading to metabolic disorders.
Cardiovascular Risks: Hypertension, high cholesterol, and an elevated risk of heart disease.
Insulin Resistance: High likelihood of developing type 2 diabetes due to impaired glucose metabolism.
Mental Health Concerns: Increased prevalence of anxiety and depression among PCOS patients.

Management and Treatment Approaches

Dietary Modifications: Low glycemic index foods help regulate blood sugar & manage PCOS symptoms.
Regular Exercise: Improves insulin sensitivity and supports weight control.
Weight Reduction: Losing 5-10% of body weight can restore ovulation and reduce symptoms.
Hormonal Therapy: Oral contraceptives regulate menstrual cycles and lower androgen levels.
Insulin-Sensitizing Drugs: Metformin helps manage blood sugar and metabolic imbalance.
Ovulation Induction: Clomiphene and letrozole stimulate ovulation for fertility treatment.
Assisted Reproductive Techniques: Intrauterine Insemination (IUI) and In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) aid conception in severe infertility cases.
Emerging Research: New hormonal therapies, nutritional supplements, and awareness programs focus on better PCOS management.