Current Affairs – June 07, 2025

{GS2 – IR – India-China} China’s Brahmaputra Dams & Implications on India

Context (IE): China has planned Medog (or Motuo) Hydropower Project, in Medog County near the ‘Great Bend’ where Brahmaputra (Yarlung Tsangpo) makes a U-turn and plunges into a canyon before entering Arunachal Pradesh.
The planned 60,000-MW Medog project will be the world’s largest hydropower facility, with a generation capacity three times that of Three Gorges Dam, currently the world’s largest hydropower station.

Other Projects on the Brahmaputra River by China

Dam Name	Capacity (MW) (Approx.)	Status
Zangmu	510	Operational
Jiacha	360	Operational
Dagu	660	Operational
Jiexu	510	Under construction
Bayu	800	Proposed
Lengda	320	Work likely to begin this year
Zhongda	320	Proposed
Langzhen	340	Proposed

Impact of China’s upstream interventions on India

Hydrological Risks: Most Chinese dams are run-of-the-river projects with minimal water storage, but they can still affect river flow impacting hydropower projects in Assam and downstream states.
Agricultural Impact: Large dams may trap silt and sediments, which normally enrich the fertile floodplains. This can lead to reduced soil fertility in agricultural regions of Assam and West Bengal.
Ecological impact: Disruption of fragile Himalayan ecosystem due to altered water flow & habitat changes. Sudden release of stored water can lead to flash floods, threatening flood-prone areas like Assam.
Increased risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs), potentially triggered by dam-induced changes.
Seismic Risks: Construction of large dams and reservoirs increases the risk of earthquake-induced dam failure or landslides, aggravating disaster vulnerability.
Geopolitical & Strategic Concerns: China has used water control as a geopolitical tool, withholding critical hydrological data during tense moments (e.g., 2017 Doklam standoff).
- Due to the absence of binding water-sharing treaty between India and China for Brahmaputra, control over upstream water flow gives China strategic leverage in regional politics and security.

Steps taken by India

Hydropower Projects:
- Upper Siang Project: A multipurpose dam aimed at regulating water flow and generating clean hydroelectric power to balance upstream interventions.
- Dibang Valley Project (10 GW capacity): One of India’s largest hydropower initiatives designed to counterbalance China’s infrastructure build-up on the Brahmaputra.
River-Linking Projects: Manas–Sankosh–Teesta–Ganga Link and Jogighopa–Teesta–Farakka Link
Both projects aim to transfer surplus water from Brahmaputra tributaries to the Ganga basin.
Data Sharing Mechanisms:
- Expert Level Mechanism: Established in 2006 to facilitate hydrological data sharing, although effectiveness is limited.
- MoUs on Brahmaputra & Sutlej: The Brahmaputra MoU lapsed in 2023 (renewable every 5 years), raising concerns over transparency. An Umbrella MoU signed in 2013 remains valid but lacks binding enforcement.

Way Forward

Scientific & Strategic Monitoring: Conduct continuous assessment of flow variations, sedimentation, and seismic risks linked to upstream dams.
Hydro-Diplomacy: Advocate for a treaty-based, legally binding water-sharing agreement with China to ensure transparency and equitable usage. Promote multilateral cooperation involving India, China, Bangladesh, and Bhutan to manage Brahmaputra basin resources jointly.
Disaster Preparedness: Strengthen early-warning systems for floods & dam-related emergencies. Develop flood-resilient infrastructure in flood-prone Assam & northeastern states to mitigate risks.
Ecological Safeguards: Preserve riverine biodiversity, wetlands, and forests to maintain ecological balance. Monitor environmental changes like desertification in Tibet, which could worsen water scarcity downstream.

{GS3 – Envi – Plastic Pollution} Nanoplastics making E. Coli more virulent

Context (TH): Nanoplastics could make Escherichia coli (E. Coli), a foodborne pathogen, more virulent.

Credit: TH

Key Findings

E. coli has negatively charged cell membranes that attract positively charged nanoplastics, thus increasing bacterial stress, causing E. coli to produce more harmful toxins, such as Shiga-like toxins.
Nanoplastics impair immune responses by reducing the ability of immune cells to kill bacteria. Also promote antimicrobial resistance by carrying resistance genes & induce genetic changes that enhance survival & pathogenicity of E. coli.

Pathogenicity is microorganism’s ability to cause disease, indicating whether it can infect a host or not.
Virulence measures the degree of severity or harm caused by a disease pathogen.

About Escherichia coli (E. coli)

E. coli is a type of bacteria that belongs to the larger group called faecal coliforms, which are commonly found in the intestines of humans and animals.
They benefit their hosts by producing Vitamin K2 and preventing pathogenic bacteria from colonising the intestine, forming a symbiotic relationship.
However, if these bacteria penetrate the kidney or other parts of the body, they can cause gastroenteritis, urinary tract infections, neonatal meningitis, hemorrhagic colitis, and Crohn’s disease.

Nanoplastics

Tiny plastic particles measuring between 1 nanometer (nm) and 1000 nm in size. They consist of synthetic polymers or heavily modified natural polymers.
Types of Nanoplastics:
- Primary Nanoplastics: Manufactured intentionally for industrial, medical, or consumer applications.
- Secondary Nanoplastics: Formed unintentionally through the breakdown and fragmentation of larger plastic debris due to UV radiation, mechanical abrasion, or biodegradation.

Applications: Used in cosmetics, medicine (drug delivery), manufacturing for durability and lightweight material, and potential environmental cleanup.
Concerns: They accumulate in ecosystems and food chains, disrupt microbes and aquatic life, increase bacterial virulence, and pose potential risks of toxicity and inflammation in humans.

Also Read > Micro and nano-plastics in bottled water

{GS3 – IE – Industry} Issue of Sustainability in India’s Textile Industry

Context (DTE | TH): India’s textile boom is causing massive waste. A circular economy with Extended producers responsibility (EPR), innovation, and mindful consumption is key to sustainability.

EPR is a policy approach where producers are held responsible for the entire lifecycle of their products, especially end-of-life management like collection, recycling and disposal.

Textile Waste: Status

Textile industry generates approx. 7,800 kilotonnes of waste every year, 8.5% of the world’s annual textile waste. It is the 3^rd largest contributor to dry municipal solid waste.
Only 34% of textile waste is reused, often through informal repair/upcycling. Only 25% is recycled. Remaining waste is either incinerated, downcycled into lower-value products, or dumped in landfills.
India is the 2^nd largest producer of Man-Made Fibres (MMFs) globally, with polyester and viscose making up 94% of the total. MMFs are non-biodegradable and release microplastics into water bodies during washing.

Man-Made Fibres (MMF) are Fibres produced artificially from chemical substances rather than natural sources (like cotton or wool).

Factors Responsible for soaring Textile waste

Lack of Standardisation: No national mechanism to quantify or classify textile waste systematically.
Resource inefficiency: Low recovery — a large share fails to re-enter the textile production cycle.
Unorganised chain: Fragmented recycling infrastructure, informal waste sector (~4 million informal workers involved in textile waste handling, lacking formal training, safety nets), low technology uptake.
Landfill overload: Most textile waste is dumped in landfills, release methane (a potent GHG) and toxic leachate, contaminating soil & groundwater.
- E.g. Noyyal river (Tamil Nadu) polluted due to untreated textile effluents from Tirupur. Bandi River (Rajasthan) polluted by textile units in Pali, Rajasthan.
Technological Challenges: Blended fibres (cotton + polyester) are hard to recycle due to differing properties. Only 25% of textile waste recycled, mostly into low-grade yarns.

Steps taken towards sustainability

Government Initiatives: Government e-Marketplace–SCOPE MoU promotes the use of recycled textiles in government procurement.
Private Sector Responses: Brands like H&M and Zara follow “vertical sustainability” — integrating eco-friendly practices in sourcing, production, and design.
- Several brands now mandate 20–30% sustainable fabric use in their collections to meet ESG goals.
Research Innovations: NITRA–NBRI collaboration developed milkweed-based fibre, a biodegradable alternative to synthetic fabrics.
- Spinnova (Finland) produces fabric from wood pulp and textile waste using a chemical-free process, showcasing circular textile innovation.

The Textiles Committee (Ministry of Textiles), Government e-Marketplace (GeM), and Standing Conference of Public Enterprises (SCOPE) agreed to promote upcycling of textile waste and scrap, aiming to foster circular economy practices within the sector.

Way Forward

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Make brands accountable for the entire lifecycle of textiles — from eco-friendly design to end-of-life disposal. Enforce standards for durability, recyclability, and reduced environmental impact.
Waste Infrastructure & Technology: Set up urban textile recovery centres and invest in modern technologies like RFID tagging, automated sorting, and chemical recycling to improve efficiency and reduce landfill dependency.
Formalise Informal Sector: Integrate ~4 million informal waste workers through PPP models, offering them social security and training to professionalise recycling and improve last-mile implementation.
- E.g.: Swachh Pune model integrates waste pickers into formal systems via cooperatives.
Promote Sustainable Habits: Advance LiFE mission to encourage thrift, reuse, and conscious consumption. Run campaigns to popularise second-hand markets & responsible textile disposal.

{GS3 – IE – Insolvency} Effectiveness of IBC as a resolution tool

Context (TH): IBC has strengthened debt recovery and credit discipline in India, but judicial delays and legal uncertainties still challenge its effectiveness.

Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC)

IBC seeks to create a unified framework to resolve insolvency and bankruptcy in India.
Objective: To resolve the bankruptcy crisis in the corporate sector, consolidate insolvency and bankruptcy proceedings, and revive the company in a time-bound manner.
Applicability: Individuals, Corporates, Partnerships, Limited Liability Partnerships, & personal guarantors to corporate debtors.
Adjudicating authority: National Companies Law Tribunal (NCLT) for companies and LLPs and Debt Recovery Tribunals (DRTs) for individuals and Partnership firms.
It provides for a time-bound process for resolving the insolvency of corporate debtors called the corporate insolvency resolution process (CIRP).

Successes of IBC

Dominant Recovery Channel: IBC accounted for 48% of total bank recoveries (SARFAESI (32%), Debt Recovery Tribunals (17%), & Lok Adalats (3%)) in FY 2023–24, making it the largest recovery mechanism for banks. Also, realisation exceeds 170% of the liquidation value.
High Pre-admission Settlements: 30,310 cases were settled before formal admission to insolvency proceedings (Dec 2024), covering defaults worth ₹13.78 lakh crore, reflecting the deterrent effect of IBC.

Significance of IBC

Shift in Borrower Behaviour: Promoters now avoid defaults to prevent insolvency, preserving control and reputation.
Improved Credit Discipline: Enhanced repayment and early resolution have helped reduce Gross NPAs from 11.2% (FY18) to 2.8% (FY24).
Better Corporate Governance: Resolved firms show more independent directors, professional management, and improved compliance (IIM-B study).
Lower Cost of Credit: Clean balance sheets and restructuring post-IBC reduce lenders’ risk, leading to a 3% average drop in borrowing costs for stressed firms.

Challenges

Delayed resolution: Despite Committee of Creditors (CoC) approval, resolution is often delayed due to insufficient judicial capacity.
- 78% of ongoing Corporate Insolvency Resolution Process (CIRP) cases exceeded the mandated 270-day timeline as of March 2025 (ICRA report).
Post-resolution legal uncertainty: Even after the resolution plan is approved and implemented, stakeholders often initiate legal challenges.
Framework gaps for emerging business models: IBC lacks provisions to handle complexities in new-age firms, resulting in poor resolution outcomes for start-ups and tech-driven enterprises.
Unaddressed aspects: Valuation and transfer of IPR, treatment of employee dues, and ensuring technology continuity (e.g., licenses, data access) remain unresolved in the IBC framework for start-ups.

Way Forward

Expand NCLT/NCLAT capacity: Appoint more members, digitise operations, & modernise case handling.
Legal Finality & Predictability: Codify safeguards to protect approved resolution plans from endless litigation. Build judicial consensus on upholding commercial decisions of Committee of Creditors (CoC).
Pre-Packaged Insolvency & Sectoral Frameworks: Promote pre-packs for MSMEs and startups. Introduce sector-specific norms for resolution of IPR-based and tech-intensive firms.
Investor Assurance Mechanisms: Provide legal clarity and regulatory assurance to boost investor confidence in resolution outcomes.

Read more> Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC)

{GS3 – S&T – BioTech} Thermophilic Bacteria in Rajgir Hot Spring

Context (TH): Researchers have discovered antibiotic producing thermophilic bacteria, i.e. Actinobacteria at Rajgir Hot Spring lake, in Nalanda, Bihar.

Bacteria belonging to this group are known producers of antimicrobial compounds. Well-known drugs like streptomycin and tetracycline were 1^st discovered as the products of Actinobacteria.

What are Thermophilic Bacteria?

Thermophiles are heat loving micro-organisms that have been known to tolerate 45° to 70° C of heat.
Inhabit a variety of extreme ecological sites like hot springs, hydrothermal vents found under the deep sea, tectonically active fault lines of the earth, volcanic sites, and decomposition sites.
Their cell membrane contains abundant saturated fatty acids which provide a hydrophobic environment for the cell and keep the cell membrane rigid enough for the cell to survive at elevated temperatures.
Examples: Thermococcus kodakarensis, Bacillus stearothermophilus, Thermus aquaticus.

Applications of Thermophiles

Industrial uses: Manufacturing of biological washing powder, clean up oil spills, textile & paper industry for starch removal, etc.
Environmental: Waste treatment, immobilization of heavy metals in the soil,
Biofuel production: Used in bioethasynthesisenol and biogas production.
Medicinal: Thermophilic enzymes are used to synthesize drug intermediaries and active pharmaceutical ingredients with high specificity and stability.

{GS3 – S&T – Nuclear Energy} Proton Emission & Astatine

Context (TH): IIT Roorkee researchers have successfully detected and measured proton emission from Astatine-188 (¹⁸⁸At), marking it as the heaviest proton emitter observed to date.
Its detection marks the first observation of ground-state proton radioactivity in such a heavy isotope.

About Astatine (At)

At is a rare, highly radioactive element classified under the halogen group (Group 17) of periodic table.
Unlike other halogens, Astatine has no stable isotopes.
Dark-coloured solid at room temperature, but its extreme rarity & radioactivity limit direct observation.
Rarest naturally occurring element in Earth’s crust. Exists only in trace amounts as a short-lived decay product in the uranium and thorium decay chains.
Chemically similar to iodine, though it exhibits more metallic behaviour than other halogens.
Astatine-188 undergoes proton emission to form Polonium-187, which has a half-life of approximately 1.4 milliseconds. Polonium-187 then decays into Lead-183, continuing through further decay steps toward a stable nucleus.

Credit: cl

Understanding Proton Emission

Proton emission is a type of radioactive decay where an unstable, proton-rich nucleus ejects a proton to become more stable.
Occurs when the nucleus is beyond the proton drip line—the boundary beyond which nuclei cannot retain additional protons, causing instability.
The proton escapes via quantum tunnelling, enabled by negative proton separation energy.

Quantum tunnelling allows particles to pass through energy barriers they cannot overcome classically.

Types of Proton Emission:

Direct Proton Emission: From the ground state or low-lying isomer of an unstable nucleus.
Beta-delayed Proton Emission: Follows beta-plus decay, which excites nucleus before proton release.

Significance:
- Maps the limits of nuclear stability.
- Reveals insights into nuclear shape, structure, and shell closures in exotic nuclei.

{GS3 – S&T – Nuclear Energy} Uranium Enrichment

Context (IE): Iran’s growing stockpile of highly enriched uranium has renewed global focus on uranium enrichment—a process vital for both nuclear energy and weapons.

What is Uranium Enrichment?

It is the process of increasing the percentage of Uranium-235 (U-235) in natural uranium.
Uses of enriched uranium: Nuclear reactors (for electricity generation) and Nuclear weapons (for military applications).

Natural Composition of Uranium

U-238 (99.284%): Non-fissile, cannot sustain a chain reaction.
U-235 (0.711%): Fissile, can sustain a chain reaction and is thus useful in nuclear applications.
U-234 (0.005%): Minor isotope.

U-235 is the only isotope found in nature in significant quantity that is fissile with thermal (slow) neutrons. An isotope is considered fissile if it can be split by a slow moving neutron.
Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
Fission: A process where the nucleus of an atom (like U-235) splits into two smaller nuclei, releasing neutrons and energy.

Need for Uranium Enrichment

Natural uranium has too little U-235 to be useful in nuclear reactors or for electricity or plutonium production. Hence, enrichment is essential.

Types of Enriched Uranium

Type	U-235 Percentage	Use
Low Enriched Uranium (LEU)	<20% (typically 3-5%)	Civilian nuclear reactors
Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU)	≥20% (especially ~90%)	Nuclear weapons
Very Highly Enriched Uranium	~90%	Directly weapons-grade

Methods of Enrichment

Gas Centrifuge Method (most widely used): Uses rapidly spinning centrifuges to separate U-235 from U-238 based on slight mass differences. It is highly efficient & consumes less energy.
Gaseous Diffusion (older, phased out): Here, uranium hexafluoride gas is forced through porous membranes, allowing the lighter U-235 to pass through slightly faster. It is energy–intensive.
Laser Isotope Separation (under development): Uses lasers to selectively excite or ionize U-235 atoms for separation. It is energy-efficient and precise.

Chain Reaction

A U-235 atom absorbs a neutron, becomes unstable, and splits. Releases 2–3 more neutrons and energy.
If these neutrons strike other U-235 atoms, an exponential chain reaction ensues — this is the basis of nuclear power and weapons.

Credits: MIT Nuclear Reactor Lab

Significance of Uranium Enrichment

Nuclear Power Generation: Without enrichment, natural uranium cannot sustain a controlled chain reaction efficiently in light-water reactors.
Medical and Research Applications: Research reactors, which support nuclear medicine and scientific experiments, often require highly enriched uranium (HEU).
Strategic & Military Use: This makes enrichment technology a dual-use capability—central to both civil energy and nuclear weapons development—raising global non-proliferation concerns.
Geopolitical & Strategic Control: Control over enrichment technology gives a country greater energy independence and strategic leverage.

International Frameworks on Uranium Enrichment

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): Global watchdog for nuclear activities. It monitors compliance to prevent the misuse of nuclear materials and promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy.
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): Aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to foster the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of disarmament

{GS3 – S&T – Tech} Advanced Cooling Methods Can Cut Data Centre Emissions

Context (TH): A team of researchers from Microsoft and WSP Global has published a groundbreaking study demonstrating that advanced cooling method can cut data centre emissions.

Challenge of Heat in Data Centres

Data centres are energy-intensive facilities. A data center, housing thousands of interconnected servers, generates an immense amount of heat, akin to a large bonfire.
Microscopic switches, known as transistors, which rapidly process data, generate immense heat as they operate, posing a significant threat to electronic components.
It impedes the flow of electrons, leading to a decline in performance and potentially causing malfunctions or complete system failures.
- Effective cooling is thus crucial for maintaining optimal operational efficiency, ensuring a longer lifespan for the hardware, and preventing heat-induced damage.
Traditionally, data centres have relied on air cooling, essentially giant fans and ACs, to manage this heat. But this method is inefficient, wasteful, and water-intensive.

Need for Greening Data Centres

To curb climate change, the ICT industry needs to cut emissions by 42% by 2030 (from its 2015 levels).
Data centres need greener designs that use less energy and water, and have lower greenhouse gas emissions to help meet global climate goals and keep warming below 1.5°C.

Advanced Cooling Technologies to Cut Data Centre Emissions

Cold plates, also known as direct-to-chip cooling, are small heat exchange modules equipped with microchannels to enhance heat transfer. This method is more efficient than fans.
Immersion cooling: This technique can be likened to submerging a hot object into a liquid specifically designed to absorb and dissipate heat, rather than relying on air circulation. The specialized fluid efficiently draws 100% of the heat away from the components, preventing overheating.

Their Benefits

Advanced cooling methods like cold plates and immersion cooling can cut data centre emissions by 15-21%, energy use by 15-20%, and water consumption by 31-52% compared to traditional air cooling.
Switching to renewables slashes emissions by 85-90%, energy use by 6-7%, and water demand by 55–85%, regardless of cooling tech.
Reducing data centre energy use through advanced liquid-cooling technologies will lead to marked reductions in data centre environmental impacts.