Current Affairs – July 10, 2025

{GS1 – A&C – Sites} Keezhadi (or Keeladi) Excavation

• Context (IE): Recent excavations at Keezhadi (or Keeladi) have revealed the existence of an advanced urban settlement, possibly dating back to the 5^th-8th century BCE.

• The findings show that literature and civilisation flourished in South India during the Sangam Age itself, which challenges the earlier belief that it was only in the Ganges plains.

Keeladi is located in the Sivagangai district, near Madurai, Tamil Nadu. This is where the Vaigai River flows nearby.

Key findings

• Urban Settlement: Elements of Brick structure, Industrial furnace and drainage system.
• Artefacts: Presence of graffiti-marked pottery and terracotta hopscotch, an iron nail, black and red ware, red slipped ware and earthen snake figurine.
• Trade: Evidence of carnelian beads & crystal quartz weights indicates early trade activities in region.
• Literature: Tamil-Brahmi Inscription on potsherds.
• Industry: The weaving industry (Spindle whorls, copper needles, hanging stones of the yarn), dyeing industry, and glass industry are believed to exist.
• Precious Stones: Gold ornaments, copper articles, semi-precious stones, and bangles were also found.

Sangam Age Sangam refers to a collection of texts written in old Tamil inscriptions. It flourished under the patronage of the Pandyas; the first and third Sangams were held in Madurai, and the Second Sangam was held in Kapadapuram. It consists of Tolkapiyam, Eight Anthologies of poems (Ettutogai), Ten Idylls on grammar (Pattupattu), and Pathinenkilanaku (Ethics and Morals). The oldest text was Tolkappiyam, written by Tolkappiyar. The poems were divided into two main groups- Aham (Love) and Puram (Valour, War). Other important texts were: Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvar, Silappathigaram by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar.

{GS1 – Geo – EG – Mineral Resources} India Reconsiders EV Push After China’s RE magnet clampdown

• Context (TH): India’s Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) push faces a key challenge as China’s recent export curbs on rare earth magnets prompt a policy rethink.

Key Concerns Prompting a Policy Rethink

• Overdependence on China: China dominates EV batteries, and controls processing of lithium, cobalt, and nickel. Indian EV ambitions are vulnerable to supply disruptions and geopolitical coercion.
• Skewed Subsidy Structure: EV tax breaks primarily benefit middle/upper-middle class buyers, especially for four-wheelers. It raises equity concerns in a developing economy.
• Weak Charging Infrastructure: World Bank studies show charging infra investments are 4-7x more effective than upfront purchase subsidies. India’s public charging network is still inadequate and unevenly distributed.
• India’s Current Policy Tilt: The EV30@2030 goal envisions 30% private cars, 40% buses, 70% commercial cars, and 80% 2/3-wheelers to be electric by 2030.
• Electricity Grid Source: India’s grid is still coal-heavy, which offsets the climate benefits of EVs unless power generation shifts to renewables.

Way Forward

• Diversify Technology Mix: Include Hybrid EVs, Plug-in Hybrids, Hydrogen Fuel Cell EVs, and Biofuels in the policy matrix. Incentivize tech neutrality instead of pushing one solution.
• Secure Mineral Supply Chains: Invest in mineral diplomacy with Lithium Triangle countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile) & Australia. Develop indigenous rare earth processing capabilities & battery recycling units.
• Prioritize Infrastructure Over Subsidies: Shift public spending from direct EV subsidies to charging infrastructure and grid upgrades. Promote PPPs for urban and rural EV infra deployment.
• Green the Grid: Synchronize EV adoption with India’s renewable targets (500 GW non-fossil by 2030). Encourage solar wind microgrids for charging hubs.
• Protect the Domestic ICE Industry: Encourage R&D in hybrid technologies, low-emission ICEs, and flex-fuel vehicles. Use this transition phase to retrain the workforce and revamp supply chains.

{GS2 – IR – Bilateral Relations} India–Brazil Relations

• Context (IE): PM Modi’s visit to Brazil for the 17^th BRICS Summit and a bilateral engagement marked the first by an Indian PM in nearly six decades.

Historical Linkages

• Shared Colonial Legacy: Both countries were part of the Portuguese imperial network. Portuguese explorer Pedro Alvares Cabral reached Brazil in 1500, just two years after Vasco da Gama arrived in India.
• Trade & Exchange:
  • Agricultural Exchange: Coconuts and mangoes reached Brazil from India; Brazil sent cashew nuts and cattle breeds (now over 80% of Brazil’s livestock Nelore, from Nellore in Andhra Pradesh).
  • Cultural Connections: Similarities emerged through Portuguese influence in language, religion, and cuisine.

Strategic Convergence and Multilateralism

• Shared Global Platforms: India and Brazil collaborate on key multilateral forums such as BRICS, G20, G4, IBSA, International Solar Alliance, and the Biofuture Platform.
• Institutional Mechanisms: Joint Commission Meetings at Foreign Minister level. Strategic Dialogue between National Security Advisers and 2+2 Political-Military Dialogue, launched in 2024.
• Shared Goals: Both nations advocate for Global South solidarity and support multilateral reform, including a restructured UN Security Council that reflects modern geopolitical realities.

Way Forward

• Strengthen Trade Mechanisms: Fast-track Preferential Trade Agreements with MERCOSUR. Diversify export baskets to include green tech and fintech services.
• Leverage Agricultural Collaboration: Expand cooperation in livestock genetics, sustainable agriculture, and biofuels.
• Boost Cultural Diplomacy: Promote educational exchange programs, scholarships, and cultural festivals between universities and civil societies.
• Joint Voice in Global South Forums: Coordinate positions on climate finance, WTO reforms, and digital governance at BRICS, G20, and beyond.

{GS2 – IR – China-Pakistan} China-Pakistan Collusion: India’s New Strategic Challenge

• Context (TH): Recently, Lt. Gen. Rahul R. Singh confirmed China’s active support to Pakistan during Operation Sindoor, turning the theoretical “two-front war” into a “one-front reinforced war” with Chinese assets backing Pakistan below conventional escalation thresholds.

What is the ‘One-Front Reinforced’ Threat?

• Rather than a two-front war, the new challenge is more subtle but dangerous, a Pakistan-led conflict reinforced by China’s technological, logistical, and intelligence support.
• Key Elements of Collusion:
  • Use of Chinese-origin platforms: Pakistan deployed Chinese J-10C fighters, PL-15 missiles, and HQ-9 air defence systems.
  • Real-time ISR support: China’s ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance) systems enabled live battlefield coordination.
  • Satellite integration: BeiDou navigation system guided missile precision.
  • Cyber and drone warfare: Chinese playbook visible in Pakistan’s cyber ops and UAV deployment.
  • Information warfare: Chinese state media amplified Pakistan’s narrative, even manipulating global perceptions about India’s military actions.
  • Diplomatic Warfare: China refrained from condemning the Pahalgam terror attack and backed Pakistan diplomatically at the UNSC, diluting any reference to terror groups.

Strategic Implications for India

• Complicated Deterrence Framework: The blurred distinction between conventional war, grey-zone warfare, and terrorism now challenges India’s traditional response spectrum. China’s support emboldens Pakistan without direct Chinese troop involvement, allowing proxy escalation.
• Shift in Battlefield Doctrine: The reliance on advanced ISR, drones, EW (electronic warfare), and network-centric combat marks a shift in India’s conventional threat environment.
• A “New Normal” in Strategic Geography: Despite October 2024’s Eastern Ladakh disengagement, India faces an active northern and western front. The collapse of the 2021 ceasefire with Pakistan has reopened the LoC as a live theatre.
• Chinese Defence Industry’s Global Demonstration: Operation Sindoor served as a live testbed for Chinese military hardware, boosting its arms export prospects. China collects combat data without incurring political or military risk.

Way Forward

• Acknowledge the New Reality: Battlefield collusion is not hypothetical; it’s operational. Policy must shift from event-based retaliation to anticipatory deterrence.
• Institutional Coordination: Integrate responses across MEAs, MoD, DRDO, and Strategic Forces Command to counter hybrid threats.
• Defence-Industrial Partnerships: Accelerate Make in India in advanced platforms like UAVs, electronic warfare, satellite-based navigation, anti-drone systems.
• Strengthen Defence Budget: Reverse the decline in defence spending (from 17.1% of central expenditure in 2014-15 to 13% in 2025-26). Prioritise ISR expansion, drones and missile defence, cyber and electronic warfare capabilities.

{GS2 – MoIB – Schemes} BIND Scheme

• Context (PIB): The Union Government proposed a new Akashvani Kendra in Ujjain under the Broadcasting Infrastructure and Network Development (BIND) scheme.

About the BIND Scheme

• Launched in 2023, it is a Central Sector Scheme aimed to upgrade and expand public broadcasting services.
• Implemented by the Information & Broadcasting Ministry through Prasar Bharati, the scheme runs until 2025-26.
• Focus regions include LWE-affected areas, border zones, tribal belts, and aspirational districts.

Mandate

• AIR FM coverage is to reach 66% of the geographical area and 80% of the population.
• Around 8 lakh DD set-top boxes are to be distributed in remote regions.
• The scheme supports high-quality content creation for AIR and DD.
• Studios and infrastructure are to be upgraded to HD and digital standards.
• OB vans and mobile units are to be deployed for live field coverage.
• DD Free Dish capacity is to be expanded to carry more channels.

About Prasar Bharati Prasar Bharati is India’s autonomous public broadcaster under the I&B Ministry. Established by Prasar Bharati Act, 1990, it comprises Doordarshan (DD) and All India Radio (AIR). Its mandate is to inform, educate, and entertain while promoting integration and cultural diversity. Board appointments, including the Chairman, are made by the President of India.

{GS2 – MoM – Schemes} Aspirational DMF Programme

• Context (PIB): The Aspirational District Mineral Foundations (DMF) Programme was launched to integrate DMF initiatives with Aspirational Districts Programme & Aspirational Blocks Programme.

• It is a targeted initiative under the Ministry of Mines to develop mining-affected areas using DMF funds efficiently.

About the District Mineral Foundation (DMF)

• DMF is a non-profit statutory trust formed under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957, to develop areas affected by mining.
• Each mining-affected district maintains its own DMF fund, managed by a trust chaired by the District Collector and aligned with PMKKKY.
• Objective: DMF aims to promote the welfare and sustainable development of populations in mining-affected areas.
• Focus: Funds are directed to sectors such as drinking water, healthcare, education, skill development, environment, and related welfare needs.
• DMFs follow a cooperative model involving communities, Panchayati Raj institutions, and district authorities in project planning and execution.

{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} EPR Framework for Non-Ferrous Metals

• Context (DTE): The MoEFCC notified the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Amendment Rules, 2025, introducing an Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Framework for non-ferrous metals, including aluminium, zinc, and copper.

• EPR mandates producers to manage post-consumer waste through collection, recycling, and environmentally sound disposal.
• The rules apply nationwide to producers, importers, recyclers, refurbishers, and bulk users handling notified non-ferrous metal products.

About the EPR Framework

• Graduated Targets: Producers must meet recycling targets from 10% in 2026–27 to 75% by 2032–33.
  • Targets apply after products have reached the end of their lifespan.
• Product List: The rules cover cans, foils, wiring, cookware, transformers, and other notified products.
• Input Mandate: Schedule XIII mandates a minimum % of recycled metal to be used in manufacturing.
• Oversight: A CPCB-led steering committee will oversee implementation, disputes, and compliances.
  • States shall provide land and infrastructure for recycling and refurbishing units.
• Portal: CPCB will run a centralised portal for registration, filings, certificate trade, and scrap tracking.
• Report Filing: Entities must file half-yearly and annual reports on production, collection, recycling, etc.
• EPR Certificates: CPCB will issue tradable EPR certificates to recyclers based on verified output.
  • Non-recycling producers must purchase them to fulfil their legal obligations.
• Penalty: CPCB may levy environmental compensation on non-compliant producers or recyclers.

Significance of the EPR Framework

• Health Benefits: Authorised recycling reduces exposure to hazardous non-ferrous residues.
• Import Reduction: Better scrap recovery can lower reliance on imported metals.
• Resource Savings: Recycling of aluminium and copper conserves natural metal reserves.
• Pollution Control: Traceable systems reduce dumping and unsafe handling of scrap.
• Emission Cut: Secondary production emits less CO₂ than primary metal extraction.

{GS3 – IE – Securities} Catastrophe Bonds (Cat Bonds)

• Context (TH): Amid increasing damage and economic losses caused by natural disasters, catastrophe bonds (cat bonds) are gaining traction globally.

What are Catastrophe Bonds?

• Catastrophe bonds are a hybrid financial instrument that blends elements of insurance and debt.
• These instruments transform insurance coverage into tradable securities by transferring the risk of natural hazards from at-risk states to global capital markets.
• Unlike traditional insurance, where the insurer assumes the risk, cat bond investors take on pre-defined risks. If a qualifying disaster does not occur, investors receive their principal back along with high-interest payments.
  • If a disaster does occur, a portion (or all) of the principal may be used for recovery efforts.

Notable Examples Mexico’s MultiCat Program: Mexico has been issuing cat bonds through the World Bank (WB) to cover earthquake and hurricane risks. World Bank Involvement: Through its Capital at Risk Notes Program, the WB has facilitated cat bonds for countries vulnerable to disasters, including pandemic-related bonds during COVID-19.

How Do Cat Bonds Work?

• Sponsorship: Typically initiated by sovereign governments that pay the premium. The insured amount becomes the principal of the bond.
• Intermediaries: The sponsor requires an intermediary (e.g., World Bank) to issue the bond, thereby reducing counterparty risk.
• Investor Risk: If a disaster meeting the bond’s criteria occurs, investors may lose part or all of the principal. In return, they earn high coupon rates.
• Trigger Mechanism: Payouts are based on parameters like disaster intensity or location, ensuring speedy disbursement.
• Coupon Rates: Vary by risk type, with lower rates for rare events (e.g., earthquakes, at 1–2%) and higher rates for frequent or intense ones (e.g., cyclones).

Advantages of Cat Bonds

• Rapid Post-Disaster Funding: Cat bonds provide quick payouts based on pre-defined triggers, ensuring immediate liquidity for governments following a disaster.
• Reduced Fiscal Burden on Governments: Cat bonds help protect national budgets from the financial shock of disasters, avoiding sudden borrowing or diversion of development funds.
• Encourages Risk Reduction: Governments that invest in disaster preparedness and mitigation can secure better terms on cat bonds, promoting long-term resilience.

Does India Need Cat Bonds?

• High Disaster Exposure: India faces frequent climate and geological hazards, including cyclones, floods, wildfires, and earthquakes, many of which are intensifying due to climate change.
• Widening Insurance Gaps: Rising risk has led to costlier premiums and market withdrawal by some insurers, shifting the burden back to vulnerable populations and state governments.
• Commitment to Mitigation: The government already allocates $1.8 billion annually for disaster risk reduction and capacity building, enhancing its eligibility for lower-risk bond terms.

Risks and Limitations

• Trigger Sensitivity: Strict payout thresholds may result in no payout despite significant damage (e.g., 6.5M earthquake vs. a 6.6M trigger).
• Cost Concerns: If no disaster occurs, it could raise questions about the desirability of such an expense.
• Limited Market Depth: Although the cat bond market is growing, it remains relatively small compared to the global insurance and reinsurance markets.

{GS3 – Infra – Energy} Draft Petroleum and Natural Gas Rules, 2025

• Context (PIB): The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas released the Draft Petroleum and Natural Gas Rules, 2025, to boost domestic exploration, production efficiency, and ease of doing business in the upstream energy sector.

About the Draft PNG Rules

• The draft rules aim to establish a framework aligned with energy transition goals and global standards.
• Stabilisation Clause: It protects lessees from legal or fiscal adversities via compensation or deductions.
• Capacity Disclosure: Lessees must declare underutilised infrastructure and allow third-party access on equitable terms.
• Green Projects: Operators may set up integrated low-carbon projects such as solar parks or wind farms.
• CCS Framework: The rules establish a CCS framework with five-year post-closure GHG monitoring.
• Restoration Fund: Lessees to contribute to a fund for decommissioning and post-closure monitoring.
• Data Access: Govt. owns data; external use needs approval and stays confidential for seven years.
• Adjudicating Body: A Joint Secretary-level authority to enforce compliance and resolve disputes.
• Operational Clarity: Rules define procedures for lease mergers, extensions, and reservoir unitisation.

Model Revenue Sharing Contract (MRSC)

• The MRSC is revised to align with the new PNG rules and enable unified development.
• Shared Reservoirs: It allows the joint development of reservoirs across adjoining lease areas.
• Merged Leases: Lease areas may be combined under a single operational and commercial framework.
• Shared Infrastructure: Operators must share infrastructure as per access and capacity rules.
• Revenue Link: Government share is linked to the Indian Basket of Crude Oil price.

Indian Basket: Weighted average price of crude oils India imports, used as a pricing benchmark.

Petroleum Lease

• Lease Exit: Lessees may relinquish part or all of the lease based on feasibility.
• Boundary Extension: Lease terms may be revised if reservoirs extend beyond the lease area.
• Termination: Leases may be cancelled for inactivity, non-compliance, or breach of conditions.

{GS3 – S&T – Defence} INS Nistar

• Context (TH): The Indian Navy received INS Nistar, its first indigenously built Diving Support Vessel (DSV), from Hindustan Shipyard Limited (HSL) at Visakhapatnam.

• Diving Support Vessel (DSV) is designed for deep-sea diving, submarine rescue, and recovery operations.
• It was designed and built according to the classification rules of the Indian Register of Shipping (IRS).
• INS Nistar will serve as the ‘Mother ship’ for India’s Deep Submergence Rescue Vessel (DSRV).

Credits: TH

Indian Register of Shipping (IRS): Established in 1975 following the Mudaliar Committee’s recommendation, it sets maritime safety standards, conducts surveys and certifications; it is part of the International Association of Classification Societies (IACS). Deep Submergence Rescue Vessel (DSRV): It is a mini-submarine for rescuing personnel from sunken submarines.

Key Features

• Saturation diving: Enables divers to stay at depths of up to 300 meters for extended periods without surfacing.
• Side Diving Platform: Provides safe diver access for tasks up to 75 metres, aiding routine repairs.
• ROVs (Remotely Operated Vehicles): Unmanned machines for inspection and rescue at depths up to 1000 meters (beyond human reach).
• Marine Crane: Capable of lifting up to 15 tonnes from the seabed, ideal for recovering sunken parts or equipment.

{GS3 – S&T – Tech} Bluetooth Mesh Networking

• Context (TH): Twitter Co-founder introduced an early version of the mobile messaging app ‘Bitchat’ that works on ‘Bluetooth Mesh Networking’ technology.

What is Bluetooth Mesh Networking (BNM)?

• Bluetooth Mesh is a low-power, short-range wireless network system where devices communicate directly by passing messages across multiple nearby devices, resembling a human chain.

Mesh: It is like a network of devices interconnected like nodes to as many other nodes as possible.

How does it work?

• Instead of one-to-one Bluetooth pairing, devices relay data through a multi-hop, many-to-many network. They whisper messages until they reach the right person, even out of range. Whenever a new Bluetooth device joins, it just becomes a node in the mesh.

  

Credits: INTEGRA SOURCES

Potential Benefits

• Privacy: They don’t track device location, use message encryption like Airdrop, WhatsApp. Stores messages on the device without any central database. Requires no registration for the users.
• Communication: Works without requiring any active Internet, enabling offline connection.
  • Beneficial during internet breakdown in situations like natural disasters, rescue ops, military conflicts, remote areas and also on local mesh during events at college, schools etc.,
• Smart Management: To manage smart devices like smart lighting, and Air quality monitoring within a city, etc.
• Low cost: Existing mobile devices are sufficient for deployment, and no cell tower is required.

Shortcomings

• High latency, more use of battery, requires complex network management and is still in the nascent stage of development.

{GS3 – S&T – Tech} Magnetometer

• Context (PIB): Researchers at Raman Research Institute (RRI), Bengaluru, developed a quantum magnetometer using Raman-Driven Spin Noise Spectroscopy (RDSNS).

• The research on magnetometry was published under an initiative of the National Quantum Mission by the Department of Science and Technology (DST).

RRI: Founded in 1948 by C.V. Raman, it is an institute dedicated to quantum and astrophysics research. Magnetometry: It measures magnetic fields and their changes over time and location, enabling the detection of natural and artificial magnetic signals for scientific, industrial, and diagnostic purposes.

About Magnetometers

• Magnetometers are devices that detect and measure the strength and direction of magnetic fields.
• They are used in geology, archaeology, mineral exploration, space science, and medical imaging.
• Measurement Mechanism: Most magnetometers detect magnetic fields by measuring how particles or atoms respond to an external magnetic field, indicated by changes in voltage, light direction, or atomic spin.
• Advanced Types: Optically Pumped Atomic Magnetometers and Spin-Exchange Relaxation-Free (SERF) magnetometers utilise atomic spins to detect extremely weak magnetic fields with high precision.

Atomic Spin: It is the tiny movement of electrons within an atom that creates a small magnetic effect.

RDSNS Based Quantum Magnetometer

• RDSNS magnetometers are a new type of magnetometer that uses laser light to measure magnetic fields.
• Measurement Mechanism: They detect small, random movements inside Rubidium atoms without disturbing or altering them.

  

  Credits: PIB

Benefits

• RDSNS devices overcome the limitations of traditional magnetometers, such as the need for shielding and low range.
• They provide instant magnetic field readings, useful for tracking fast or changing signals.
• They can identify magnetic variations across a wide frequency range.
• These are appropriate for use in clinical, industrial, and outdoor environments.

Applications and Future Prospects

• Neuroimaging Tool: The method provides compact, simpler alternatives to MRI.
• Mineral Exploration: Helps detect underground magnetic anomalies for oil and resource mapping.
• Space Exploration: Ideal for spacecraft use due to lightweight, durable design.
• Industrial Use: Monitors magnetic fields in machinery and power systems to ensure proper functioning.

{Prelims – S&T – Defence} Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System (ATAGS)

• Context (TH): The Ministry of Defence has announced that the indigenously developed Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System (ATAGS) will replace older, smaller-calibre artillery guns.

Key Features

• Developed by DRDO’s Armament Research and Development Establishment (ARDE), Pune, the ATAGS is a 155 mm, 52-calibre towed howitzer project initiated in 2013.
• Consists of a barrel, breech mechanism, muzzle brake, & recoil system, with a firing range of upto 48 km.
• The ATAGS stands out for its advanced capabilities, such as:
  • All-electric drive for enhanced reliability and low maintenance;
  • High mobility and quick deployment;
  • Auxiliary power mode and advanced communication systems;
  • Automatic command and control with night direct-fire capability;
  • Six-round magazine (vs. standard three-round).
• The system integrates with C4I platforms, including the Artillery Combat Command and Control System (ACCCS) “Shakti,” enabling advanced fire control, planning, and deployment management.
• ATAGS represents a significant modernisation of India’s artillery, a key component of long-range, indirect fire support in military operations.

Artillery is a class of heavy military weapon systems responsible for the engagement of targets at longer ranges. Artillery gun systems are primarily used for indirect fire and can be mounted on different platforms.

{Prelims – S&T – Defence} Extended Range Anti-Submarine Rocket

• Context (BS): The Indian Navy conducted user trials of the Extended Range Anti-Submarine Rocket (ERASR) from INS Kavaratti to boost underwater strike capabilities.

• It is an indigenous anti-submarine rocket system designed for launch from indigenous rocket launchers (IRL) on naval ships, replacing older Russian RGB rockets.
• It was developed by DRDO’s Armament Research and Development Establishment (ARDE) in Pune.
• Twin Motor System: ERASR uses dual rocket motors for variable thrust and a strike range of ~9 km.
• Electronic Time Fuze: It uses an indigenous fuze that ensures timed and accurate detonation.
• The system supports interchangeable warheads for varied missions and target types.

Credit: BS

{Prelims – Sci – Bio – Diseases} Heliobacter Pylori

• Context (TOI): IARC estimates that by 2101 ~75% of stomach cancer cases among people born between 2008 and 2017 will be caused by Helicobacter pylori infection.

• International Agency for Research on Cancer had classified H. Pylori bacteria as a Group I carcinogen.

About Helicobacter pylori

• It is a gram-negative, flagellated, helical bacterium that colonizes the human stomach lining.
• It survives in the mucus layer and produces ammonia via urease to neutralize gastric acid.
• Transmission: It spreads through oral and faecal–oral routes via contaminated food, water, or saliva.
• Prevalence: It is common in Asia, Africa, and South America due to poor sanitation and overcrowding.
• Diseases: It causes gastritis, ulcers, MALT lymphoma, and increases the risk of stomach cancer.
• Virulence: cagA-positive strains disrupt DNA repair and trigger long-term gastric inflammation.
• The growing spread of antibiotic resistance in H. pylori is reducing treatment effectiveness.

Key Terms Explained Gram-Negative: Bacteria with a thin cell wall and outer membrane, staining pink in Gram tests. Flagellated: Having tail-like structures that help bacteria move through mucus. Helical: Spiral-shaped body that allows the bacterium to burrow into the stomach lining. MALT Lymphoma: A cancer of the stomach immune tissue linked to chronic H. pylori infection. cagA: A gene in some H. pylori strains encodes a protein that damages cells and causes inflammation in the stomach lining.

{Prelims – Sci – Physics} Redefining the SI Second

• Context (TH): Researchers worldwide have completed the most extensive and most precise comparison of atomic clocks in history, paving the way for a redefinition of the SI unit of time, the second.

Current Definition of the Second

• Presently, the second is defined based on caesium-133 (Cs) atomic clocks, which emit radiation at a frequency of 9,192,631,770 Hz.
• These clocks measure time using the microwave transitions between energy levels of Cs atoms.
• The current system is accurate to about 1 second every 300 million years.

Need for Redefinition

• Rising Precision Demands: The increasing precision required by technologies like GPS, radio astronomy, and quantum communication has outpaced the accuracy of Cs atomic clocks.
• Advanced Precision of Optical Clocks: Emerging optical atomic clocks operate at frequencies in the range of hundreds of trillions of Hz, allowing for the measurement of time to 18 decimal places.
• Unprecedented Stability: These clocks offer stability so high that they could lose less than one second over 15 billion years, the approximate age of the universe.

New Global Time Standard

• By 2030, optical atomic clocks are expected to replace Cs clocks as the new international standard for defining the second. Before that, clocks in different countries must be shown to agree with extraordinary precision.
• The redefinition will be managed by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM).

The National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in New Delhi maintains five Caesium (Cs) atomic clocks to define India’s official time standard.

{Species – Birds – VU} Great Hornbill

• Context (TH): A Great Hornbill was unusually sighted near the Ezhimala coast in Kerala.

• The Great Hornbill, also known as the Great Pied Hornbill, is the largest hornbill species in India.
  • There are 62 recognised hornbill species globally, of which 9 are found in India.
• Distribution: Found in the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia. In India, it is found in Western Ghats, northeast India, Himalayas.
  • It is the official state bird of both Arunachal Pradesh and Kerala.

Credit: IUCN

• Habitat: Found in old-growth evergreen and wet deciduous forests up to 2,000 metres elevation.
• Physical Description: The male has a large, hollow, yellow casque with black markings; the female lacks the markings.
• Diet: Great Hornbill is primarily frugivorous but also feeds opportunistically on smaller animals.
• Conservation Status: IUCN: Vulnerable | CITES: Appendix I | WPA, 1972: Schedule I.
• Threats: Faces habitat loss and hunting for its meat, casque, and feathers.
• Significance: It is known as a “farmer of the forest” for dispersing seeds across large forest areas.

Hornbill Festival: Nagaland hosts the Hornbill Festival annually in December to celebrate tribal culture and promote the conservation of the hornbill species.