Current Affairs for UPSC Civil Services Exam – September 11, 2024

{GS1 – A&C – Personalities} Sakthan Thampuran

• Context (IE): A statue of Sakthan Thampuran was knocked over by a state transport bus.

Sakthan Thampuran: The Powerful Ruler of Cochin

• Born as Raja Rama Varma Kunjipillai (Rama Varma IX) in 1751 to Ambika Thampuran and Chendose Aniyan Namboodiri of the Cochin royal family. He was raised by his aunt, who named him “Sakthan” (meaning “powerful“). He was a significant ruler of the Cochin kingdom from 1790 to 1805.
• The title “Thampuran” is believed to be derived from the Sanskrit word “samrat,” meaning emperor.

The Cochin kingdom, which was part of the Late Chera Empire, encompassed the regions between Ponnani in Malappuram and Thottappally in Alappuzha in present-day Kerala.

Political Strategies

• He advised maintaining friendly relations with both the Dutch and English traders.
• He orchestrated Mysore’s attempt to invade the Travancore kingdom, which led to the Powney treaty and it freed the Cochin kingdom from its allegiance to Mysore and formalised its relations with the British.

Reforms and Governance

• He abolished the institution of Yogiatirippads, who were spiritual heads of major temples and had previously conspired against the Cochin king. He entrusted temple management to the government.
• He established a reputation for maintaining law and order, significantly reducing crime in his kingdom.
• He personally oversaw revenue management, strengthening the kingdom’s finances.
• In 1797, he initiated the Thrissur Pooram, which has since become one of Kerala’s most famous temple festivals. This event was conceived as an alternative to the Arattupuzha Pooram and provided an opportunity for major temples in Thrissur to pay respects to Lord Shiva at the Vadakkumnathan Temple.

Development of Thrissur

• He moved the capital of the Cochin kingdom from Thrippunithura to Thrissur.
• He developed the Thekkinkadu Maidanam and the surrounding Swaraj Round, which became the foundation for the city’s road system and infrastructure.

{GS2 – IR – China} Defence ties between Philippines, Vietnam

• Context (IE): Vietnam & Philippines agreed to boost their defence links & deepen collaboration on maritime security. They also agreed to resolve disagreements within the international law framework.

Significance of the move

• Symbolic act: Experts see the move as symbolic in the aftermath of the South China Sea dispute.
• Possibility of unified counter: In the long term, this could be important if ASEAN claimants seek to form a more united front in addressing China’s maritime aggression.
• Complementing capabilities: Vietnam has more naval capabilities to complement the paltry maritime capabilities of the Philippines.

{GS2 – IR – India-Germany} Germany’s Growing Defence Ties with India **

• Content (TH): India and Germany have been working to deepen their defence cooperation.

• The Tarang Shakti air exercise (one of its largest multilateral air exercises), featuring the German Luftwaffe and Indian Air Force, marked a key milestone in their partnership, showcasing both nations’ commitment to strengthening military cooperation and sharing best practices.

Pacific Skies 24 is a major joint air exercise planned by France, Germany, and Spain to assert their presence in the Indo-Pacific region. Tarang Shakti is considered a precursor to Pacific Skies 24.

India’s Shifting Defence Partnerships

• Historically, Russia has been India’s primary defence partner and top supplier. However, in recent years, the United States and France have significantly increased their defence collaborations with India
• Despite being among the world’s top five arms suppliers globally, Germany has yet to establish a significant presence in India’s defence market. In 2006, India and Germany signed an agreement to deepen security and defence cooperation.
• The ongoing Russia-Ukraine war has shifted Russia’s focus away from arms exports, creating an opportunity for Germany to increase its presence.

German-Indian Defence Collaborations

• The Indo-German intergovernmental consultations in 2019 further reinforced the commitment to strengthen bilateral defence ties.

• ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems (TKMS) and Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Ltd. (MDL) signed an MoU in 2023 for the local construction of submarines for the Indian Navy.

Challenges and Considerations

• Technology Transfer: India’s emphasis on domestic defence manufacturing makes technology transfer a key requirement for partnerships.
• Interoperability: India’s mix of Russian and Western defence systems raises concerns about interoperability. However, experts suggest that integrating German or European systems with multiple Western vendors should not present significant challenges, especially in the Air Force and Navy.

Germany’s Interest in the Indo-Pacific Region

• China’s aggressive policies have raised concerns. Germany, as a major export nation, has a vested interest in maintaining free shipping routes and preserving peace and stability in the area.
• The Indo-Pacific region generates around 60% of the world’s economic output, directly impacting the economic interests of export-oriented nations like Germany.
• Europe’s shifting geopolitical focus, driven by the Russia-China alliance, necessitates greater European involvement in the Indo-Pacific.

{GS2 – MoAFW – Initiatives} Monetary Incentive under NMNF *

• Context (IE): The Finance Ministry has rejected a proposal to provide a one-time incentive of Rs 20,000 per hectare to farmers under the proposed National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF).

• Proposed rates were “considerably higher” than the incentive of Rs 15,000 per hectare approved by the Expenditure Finance Committee (EFC) in 2022-23.

The Agriculture Ministry defines natural farming (NF) as a “chemical-free” farming system that uses only livestock and plant resource inputs.

The Expenditure Finance Committee (EFC) is part of the Public Finance (central) Division of the Department of Expenditure. It is chaired by the Secretary (Expenditure) for all central government schemes with budgetary allocations over Rs.500 crores.

National Mission on Natural Farming

• Agriculture Ministry plans to launch the NMNF with an outlay of about Rs 2,500 crore, of which the states will contribute Rs 900 crore. The Centre aims to bring about 7.5 lakh hectares of land under natural farming and incentivises farmers who adopt it.
• It targets behavioural change in farmers to shift from chemical-based inputs to desi cows and locally available resources.
• It is an independent scheme from 2023-24 by upscaling the Bhartiya Prakritik Krishi Paddati.

Recent initiatives for promotion of Nature farming

• The 2023-24 budget announced that 10,000 need-based bio-input resource centres would be established to initiate 1 Cr. farmers into NF in the next two years.
• Centre promoted NF in a 5-km belt along the Ganga River under the Namami Gange scheme.

Also, refer to Natural Farming.

{GS2 – MoRD – Schemes} Relaxed exclusion criteria under PMAY-G *

• Context (IE): Centre relaxed exclusion criteria under Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Gramin (PMAY-G).

• Centre aims to construct two crore additional houses (over and above the target of 2.95 Cr rural houses under the ‘Housing for All’ programme) under the rural housing scheme by 2028-29.
• Relaxed criteria now allow families owning “two-wheelers, motorised fishing boats, refrigerators, landline phones” and earning “up to Rs 15,000 per month” to avail of PMAY-G.

Exclusion criteria in PMAY-G

• Owning motorised three/four-wheelers; mechanised three/ four-wheeler agricultural equipment;
• Kisan Credit Card with a credit limit of Rs 50,000 or above;
• Household with any member as a Government employee;
• Households with non-agricultural enterprises registered with the Government;
• Any member of the family paying income tax or professional tax;
• Landowners with 2.5 acres or more of irrigated land and households living in houses with pucca roofs and/or pucca walls, and households in houses with more than two rooms.

{GS2 – Policy – IC – Judiciary} SC Ruling on High Court Judge Appointments

• Context (IE): SC recently directed the Himachal Pradesh HC collegium to reconsider its initial recommendation of two judicial officers for elevation made 21 months ago.
• The court ruled that the High Court Chief Justice’s individual letter did not qualify as “effective consultation” and decisions must be made through collective consultation among the Chief Justice and two senior-most companion judges of the High Court.

Appointment Process for High Court Judges

• The Collegium for High Court Appointments (established by the Supreme Court in the Second Judges Case) send recommendations and reasons to the Chief Minister, Governor, and CJI.
• The Governor, advised by the CM, forwards the proposal to the Union Minister of Law and Justice.
• The Minister conducts a background check and sends the material to the CJI.
• The CJI considers it with the rest of the Supreme Court collegium.

Collegium for High Court Appointments

• The collegium for High Court appointments includes the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and the two senior-most judges of the Supreme Court. This collegium is required to consult:
  • The Chief Justice and senior judges of the concerned High Court
  • The senior-most Supreme Court judge from that High Court
  • Any Supreme Court judges knowledgeable about that High Court

Grounds for Challenging Recommendations

• The Supreme Court specified two limited grounds on which a recommendation could be challenged:
  • Lack of “effective consultation” with relevant individuals or institutions.
  • If the candidate is not “eligible” to be a judge as per qualifications laid down in the Constitution.

Read more > Collegium System and Appointment of Judges.

{GS2 – Social Sector – Health – Issues} Issues in drug regulation reforms

• Context (TH): Policy initiatives by the Drugs Controller General of India (under the Health Ministry) face challenges. Earlier, DGCI announced policy initiatives on three issues:
  1. Recall guidelines to remove drugs that fail testing in government laboratories from the market.
  2. Guidelines on good distribution practices (GDP) regulate the storage and distribution of drugs during transit and sale.
  3. Measure against confusing brand names aims to prevent prescription errors, wherein wrong drugs are dispensed to patients.

Legacy of issues

• The 59^th report (2012) of the Department-Related Parliamentary Standing Committee on Health & Family Welfare (PSC) raised issues on these aspects and the functioning of the Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO), which DGCI heads.
• State drug controllers discussed in the Drugs Consultative Committee (DCC) meeting (1976) that drugs ordered to be withdrawn in one State due to quality concerns were being sold in another state.
• In the Swantraj case (1974), the SC flagged a lack of proper standards for the storage of drugs, especially during transportation.
• In the Cadila case (2001), SC flagged the issue of similar brand names for different drugs.
• The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) issued a notice to the Ministry of Health regarding medicines with similar brand names.

Challenges in enforcement

• No legal backing: Only the Health Ministry, not the DGCI, can make legally binding rules on these.
• Issue of enforcement: The proposal to adopt WHO GDP guidelines faced opposition due to expected challenges in enforcement due to a huge number of retail shops (around six lakhs).
• Shifting the responsibility: Ministry guidelines require pharmaceutical companies to provide self-declaration instead of vetting brand names by regulators.
• Voluntary trademarks: Many companies do not seek to register their brand names as trademarks, leaving scope for similar names.
• Lack of domain expertise: Drug regulation matters are handled by a joint secretary (usually from All India service) heading the Drug Regulation Section in the Ministry, who has little domain expertise.
• Lobbying: Trade associations of pharmacies and pharmaceutical companies lobby to stall the necessary action during stakeholder consultations.

In 2019, a raid at the wholesale medicine market in New Delhi revealed shockingly poor drug storage practices, including the storage of vaccines.

{GS2 – Social Sector – Health – Issues} Rising Antibiotic Resistance in India

• Context (DTE): The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has released its seventh annual report on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) trends in India (covers data from 2023).

• Antibiotics tested included amikacin, cefotaxime, ceftazidime, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, piperacillin-tazobactam, imipenem, meropenem, and colistin. These are classified as Critically Important Antimicrobials (CIA) and Highest Priority Critically Important Antimicrobials (HPCIA) by WHO.

Key Findings

• The study revealed increased antibiotic resistance among common pathogenic bacteria and declining bacterial susceptibility to critical antibiotics over time.
• E. coli prevalent in OPD, ICU, and wards showed less than 20% susceptibility to cefotaxime, ceftazidime, ciprofloxacin, and levofloxacin. Salmonella typhi exhibited over 95% resistance to fluoroquinolones.

A report by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) highlighted the misuse of several antibiotics from CIA classes in food-producing animals in India. The CSE identified 27 types of CIAs from seven classes being used in dairy, poultry, and aquaculture for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes.

Read more > Antimicrobial Resistance, Causative Factors, Measures Taken | Antibiotic Resistance

{GS2 – Social Sector – Health} Swachh Bharat Mission: A Decade of Progress

• Context (IE): Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) may have led to reduced infant and child mortality.

SBM and its Goal

• SBM was formally launched on October 2, 2014, aimed to eliminate open defecation in India by October 2, 2019, coinciding with Mahatma Gandhi’s 150th birth anniversary.
• One of its key goals is making India open defecation-free (ODF) by building toilets & encouraging better sanitation practices. The program also aims to increase awareness of menstrual health management.
• The SBM set out to change the behaviour of ~550 million Indians, transitioning them from the traditional practice of open defecation to using over 100 million household toilets constructed by the government.

Key Achievements

• Saved the lives of about 70,000 infants & children under the age of five annually (Nature magazine).
• Positive impact on the dignity and security of women and girls by safe and private sanitation facilities.
• A UNICEF study estimated that achieving Open Defecation Free (ODF) status in a village resulted in each household saving ~Rs 50,000 annually on medical fees and time savings.
• By October 2, 2019, all Indian states declared themselves ODF.

Global Recognition

• The SBM’s success has inspired other countries, such as Nigeria, to launch similar sanitation campaigns.
• The program’s strategies were shared at the Mahatma Gandhi International Sanitation Convention in 2018, attended by 55 Health and Sanitation Ministers from around the developing world.
• The SBM’s success led to the identification of four key factors (“Four Ps”) essential for large-scale developmental programs – Political leadership, Public financing, Partnerships, and People’s participation.

  These are now globally recognised as vital for the success of transformational developmental programs.

Transformative Initiatives Beyond SBM SBM is one of many transformational programs launched by the Indian government. Other successful initiatives include Ujjwala (providing cooking gas cylinders), Jan Dhan (bank accounts), Awas Yojana (affordable housing), Ayushman Bharat (medical insurance), and the Jal Jeevan Mission (providing tap water to every household). These programs have collectively improved the quality of life for millions of Indians.

Read more > Swachh Bharat Mission – Grameen.

{GS3 – Agri – Tech} District Agro-Meteorology Units

• Context (TH): India Meteorological Department (IMD) is planning to revive District Agro-Meteorology Units (DAMUs) under the Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa (GKMS) scheme.

About District Agro-Meteorology Units (DAMUs)

• Established in 2018 by the IMD in collaboration with the Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
• Objective: To use weather data to prepare and disseminate sub-district-level agricultural advisories.
• The DAMUs were located within Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs). In March 2024, DAMUs were shut down following an order issued by the IMD.

Significance of DAMUs

• DAMUs used weather data provided by the IMD, like rainfall, temperature and wind speeds, to prepare agricultural advisories. These advisories, sent in local languages via text messages, WhatsApp, newspapers, and in-person communication, helped farmers plan activities like irrigation.
• They also served as early warnings for extreme events like droughts and heavy rainfall.
• With around 80% of farmers in India being small and marginal and the monsoon in India being erratic, the services provided by DAMUs become extremely important.

Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa (GKMS)

• Flagship scheme of the IMD in collaboration with the ICAR and various state agricultural universities, ICAR institutes, IITs and NGOs.
• Objective: To prepare and disseminate weather-based farm advisories for different management practices in agriculture and allied sectors, including livestock.
• Under it, IMD generates and issues quantitative District and Block level weather forecasts for agriculture.

{GS3 – Envi – Wetlands} Myristica swamp forest discovered in Kumbral

• Context (TOI): Sacred grove with a Myristica swamp forest in Kumbral, Maharashtra. was discovered.

• Myristica magnifica is an endangered plant species native to Karnataka and Kerala. The swamp forest is home to 70 individual trees of Myristica magnifica, making it the dominant species in this ecosystem.
• Earlier, a Myristica swamp forest was discovered in Sindhudurg district (first such in Maharashtra).
• Kumbral patch is revered as a sacred grove dedicated to Lord Shiva, known locally as Bhalandeshwar.
• Myristica swamps are considered one of the most threatened freshwater ecosystems globally.
• The ecological benefits of swamp forests include groundwater recharge, carbon sequestration, natural flood barrier, habitat (e.g. Asian short-clawed otter) and food source for various aquatic and aerial fauna (e.g. fruit of the Myristica tree serves as food for the hornbills).

{GS3 – IE – Industry} Copper Conundrum: Domestic Production & Imports **

• Context (IE): As global demand for copper surges, India faces stagnation in domestic production, leading to a significant increase in copper concentrate imports.

Current State of India’s Copper Industry

Production Trends

• Copper ore production declined from 4.13 million tonnes (Mt) in FY19 to 3.78 Mt in FY24.
• Copper concentrate production dropped by 13% in FY24 compared to FY19.
• Refined copper production grew by 12% from 454 kilotonnes (kt) to 509 kt between FY19 and FY24.

Import Dependence

• Copper concentrate imports doubled to Rs 26,000 crore in FY24 from Rs 13,000 crore in FY19.
• The growth in refined copper production is largely supported by surging concentrate and anode imports.

Factors Driving Copper Demand

• Copper is now designated as a critical mineral. Its role in clean energy technologies, such as wind turbines and EV batteries, has increased its importance.

Challenges in Domestic Copper Production

• India has estimated copper ore reserves of 208 Mt, mostly low grade.
• Total copper resources stand at 1.51 billion tonnes, requiring extensive exploration.
• The National Mineral Exploration Trust (NMET) approved only two copper exploration projects in FY23 and FY24 combined. Only four copper blocks have been auctioned since FY16.
• Recent critical mineral auctions were annulled due to insufficient investor interest.
• Small block sizes (1 square kilometre) deter potential investors, as copper is a deep-seated mineral requiring larger areas for commercially viable operations.

Strategies for Securing Copper Supply

Domestic Initiatives

• Hindustan Copper Ltd (HCL), the major copper ore mining company in India, plans to triple output to 12.2 Mt by FY29 through existing mine expansion.
• The mines ministry modified rules to encourage private exploration agencies for critical minerals.

International Engagement

• The mines ministry is gauging interest among domestic players in securing overseas mineral resources, E.g. Zambia, DRC and Chile.
• Vedanta, which owns copper mines in Zambia, recently regained control of its operations.
• It also assists domestic smelters and refiners in developing new import sources, such as Mongolia.
• The ministry is exploring bilateral investment treaties with mineral-rich countries to de-risk investments.
• Copper assets in Chile and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) are also under consideration.

Read more > Copper.

{GS3 – Infra – Energy} Differential benefits of rural electrification

• Context (TH): Research claims that electrification significantly benefits larger villages but has limited impact in the smallest & remote villages. The study examined the effects of the Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY), which aimed to electrify over 400,000 villages across India.

Key Findings

• The programme significantly increased electricity access, with one in 13 previously unconnected small villages and one in seven rural households gaining access to power. Despite the rise in access, the study revealed a stark contrast in economic benefits between small and large villages.
• In larger villages of 2,000 people or more, electrification led to nearly doubling of per-capita expenditure, while in small villages of 300 people, electrification didn’t drive economic growth.
• Larger villages enjoyed 33% return on investment from electrification, while small villages had zero return after 20 years, with a less than 27% chance of recouping the upfront infrastructure cost.
• The gap in expenditure-based ROIs between small and large villages suggests that electrification was more effective at creating new income-generating opportunities in larger communities.

Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY) RGGVY was launched in 2005. It was renamed the Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana in 2015. Under the scheme, villages with 300 or more inhabitants were eligible for electrification, and villages with fewer than 300 people were ineligible. Nodal agency: Rural Electrification Corporation (REC). Components of the scheme: Separation of agriculture and non-agriculture feeders; Strengthening and augmentation of sub-transmission & distribution infrastructure in rural areas, Rural electrification

{GS3 – Infra – Transportation} GPS-based toll collection

• Context (IE | BS): The government revised the National Highways Fee (Determination of Rates and Collection) Rules, 2008, incorporating electronic toll collection through satellite-based systems.

• These will coexist alongside the current FASTag and Automatic Number Plate Recognition systems.
• Further, vehicles not registered in India or those without functioning Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) devices will continue to be charged standard toll rates.
• Additionally, a zero-toll corridor of up to 20 km will be introduced for vehicles using the GNSS system, beyond which tolls will be charged based on the distance travelled.

• The GNSS device will be non-transferrable and firmly fitted in the vehicle for user fee collection.

What is GPS-based toll collection?

• It leverages satellites and in-car tracking systems to calculate tolls based on the distance travelled.
• This system utilises satellite-based tracking and GPS technology to charge tolls according to the distance a vehicle covers, thus eliminating the need for physical toll plazas and reducing wait times for drivers.

Credits: GNSS

Global Navigation Satellite Systems

• The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) refers to constellations of Earth-orbiting satellites that provide global positioning, navigation, and timing services.
• Positioning calculations rely on trilateration, which uses distance measurements from multiple satellites.
• GNSS Applications: Navigation systems, tracking, telecommunications, emergency response, etc.
• Several GNSS networks:

Credits: topicsforseminar.com

{GS3 – S&T – BioTech} The Hidden Threat of Cancer Cell Ancestors

• Context (TH): Scientists have made a breakthrough in understanding how certain cancer cells, which should theoretically be weaker and less fit for survival, manage to form drug-resistant tumours with the help of their ‘ancestral’ neighbours.

Drug Resistance Crisis

• Drug resistance is a global challenge, with pathogens and cancer cells becoming less responsive to treatments due to genetic mutations and non-genetic factors. These mutations typically impair the overall fitness of the cells, causing a ‘growth penalty’ when drugs are absent.

Key Findings of the Research

• Drug-resistant cells grew slower in isolation but faster when cultured with ancestral cells.
• The more ancestor cells present, the faster the resistant cells grew, eliminating the growth penalty.
• Drug resistance promotion occurred even without drug presence.

Read more > Antibiotic Resistance.

{Prelims – Envi – Species} Elongated tortoise (Indotestudo elongata)

• Context (IE): An elongated tortoise was spotted in Haryana. The Elongated, or Yellow-headed, Tortoise is a medium-sized tortoise.

• Distribution: Southeast Asia, particularly Northeast India. A disjunct population exists in the Chota Nagpur plateau.
• Habitat: Sal deciduous and hilly evergreen forests
• Physical description: Medium-sized with a yellowish brown or olive shell and distinct black blotches at the centre of each scute. The tortoise has on its nostril a pink ring, which appears in the breeding season.
• It is sexually dimorphic.

Credits: iNaturalist

• Diet: They are omnivores feeding on plants, fallen fruits, flowers, fungi, snails, slugs, and carrion.
• Conservation Status: IUCN: Critically endangered
• Threats: Exploited for food and traditional medicine, habitat destruction, fragmentation, and loss.

{Prelims – S&T – Defence} Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Water Craft

• Context (PIB): The Indian Navy marked a significant milestone with the simultaneous launch of Malpe and Mulki, of the Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Water Craft (ASW SWC) project.

• These are fourth and fifth ships in a series of eight being constructed by Cochin Shipyard Limited (CSL).
• The are named after strategically important ports along India’s coastline.

Technical Specifications and Operational Capabilities

• The ships are equipped with indigenously developed, state-of-the-art underwater sensors.
• Maximum speed: 25 knots. Operational endurance: Up to 1800 nautical miles.

Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Watercraft (ASW-SWC)

• Perform Anti-submarine operations in coastal waters, Low-Intensity Maritime Operations, and Mine Laying Operations. Also equipped with capabilities for the search-and-attack unit (SAU).
• The ASW SWC ships will have over 80% indigenous content.

{Prelims – S&T – Defence} Joint Doctrine for amphibious operations

• Context (PIB): Chief of Defence Staff General released the joint doctrine for amphibious operations.

• The amphibious capability empowers the armed forces to conduct a “multitude of operations” in the Indian Ocean Region, both during war and peace.
• It focuses on jointness and integration of armed forces especially during amphibious operations.
• Such operations integrate virtually all types of land, sea, and air forces into a coordinated military effort.

{Prelims – S&T – Space} Polaris Dawn: 1^st privately-funded spacewalk mission

• Context (IE): SpaceX launched its Polaris Dawn mission carrying a four-member civilian crew for the first spacewalk by non-professional astronauts. It is the first of three testing and development missions under the Polaris Program.

• The Polaris Program seeks to demonstrate important operational capabilities that will serve as building blocks to help further human exploration to the Moon, Mars, and beyond.

Spacewalk

• A spacewalk or an “extravehicular activity” is a period of activity spent outside a spacecraft by an astronaut in space. The first-ever spacewalk was carried out in 1965, by a Soviet cosmonaut.
• Currently spacewalks are usually done outside the International Space Station.