Current Affairs – July 25, 2025

{GS1 – IS – Issues} Polyandry in Scheduled Tribes in India

• Context (IE): A recent Jodidaran marriage, of a Hatti tribal woman, has reignited legal debate over the validity of polyandry under Scheduled Tribe exemptions & its compatibility with constitutional rights.

Hatti Tribe and Jodidaran Custom

• The Hatti community is a close-knit, agrarian group residing in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
• ST Recognition: The Hatti community in Himachal’s Trans-Giri region was granted ST status in 2023.
• Jodidaran is a fraternal polyandry practised by the Hatti tribe, where a woman marries multiple brothers to prevent land division, strengthen bonds, and ensure social security within joint families.

Read More > Hatti Community

Legal Status of Polyandry in India

• Polyandry in India is criminalised and punishable under the Hindu Marriage Act (HMA), 1955, the Special Marriage Act, 1954, and the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023.

Constitutional Safeguards and ST Exemptions

• Constitutional Safeguard: Articles 342 and 366(25) establish the constitutional identity of STs.
• ST Exemption Provision: Section 2(2) of the HMA excludes STs unless the centre notifies otherwise.
• Legal Validity of Custom: Section 3(a) of the HMA requires customs to be ancient, certain, reasonable, and not opposed to public policy.

Judicial and Constitutional Scrutiny

• The judiciary affirms that personal customs cannot override fundamental rights (Articles 14, 15, and 21) or deprive others of constitutional rights.
• Key Supreme Court Precedents
  • Triple Talaq Case: SC struck down instant divorce as arbitrary and violative of equality rights.
  • Sabarimala Entry Case: SC held the exclusion of women unconstitutional under Articles 14 and 15.
  • Ram Charan Case (2024): SC upheld tribal women’s inheritance rights in the absence of a valid opposing custom.

Legal and Ethical Challenges of Tribal Polyandry

• Gender Autonomy: Polyandrous unions deny women enforceable rights (2024 Sunita Chauhan case).
• Oral Customs: Undocumented Hatti customs hinder judicial validation and legal recourse.
• Custom vs Justice: Customs may mask regressive norms under cultural legitimacy.
• Lack of Representation: Tribal women have limited say in Khumbli councils.
• Judicial Burden: Courts struggle to validate customs without written records or community consensus.
• Reform Resistance: Top-down reforms may be rejected without local participation or sensitisation.

Way Forward

• Opt-In UCC Models: Goa’s UCC shows integration can respect recognised community practices.
• Tribal Engagement: Nagaland’s village reforms show success through internal participation.
• Women’s Rights Literacy: MoTA’s Van Dhan Kendras can spread awareness among tribal women.
• Balanced Reform Path: Xaxa Committee (2014) urged reforms that respect culture and equity.

{GS2 – Vulnerable Sections – Women} Misuse of Section 498A IPC

• Context (DH): Recently, the Supreme Court upheld the Allahabad High Court guidelines that mandate a two-month “cooling-off” period and Family Welfare Committee (FWC) screening before arrest under Section 498A IPC.

Supreme Court Guidelines to Preventing Misuse

• In Shivangi Bansal v. Sahib Bansal (2025), the Supreme Court exercised its powers under Article 142 to issue binding procedural safeguards for Section 498A across India.

FWC Referral

• Mandatory Screening: All 498A FIRs must be referred to Family Welfare Committees.
  • FIRs involving serious IPC crimes like dowry death bypass the FWC route.
• Neutral Composition: Each FWC includes three retired officers, mediators, or social workers.
• Witness Ban: FWC members cannot appear as prosecution witnesses during trial.

Arrest Safeguards

• Cooling-Off: A mandatory two-month no-arrest window begins after referral to the FWC.
• Arrest Threshold: No automatic arrests allowed for offences punishable below seven years.
• Limitations: Police can investigate but must wait for FWC report and Magistrate approval to arrest.

About Section 498A IPC

• Section 498A criminalises cruelty by husband or relatives, punishable by 3 years’ imprisonment & fine.

  Legal Nature

• Non-Compoundable: The offence cannot be withdrawn by mutual consent once the FIR is registered.
• Cognizable Offence: Police can intervene without warrant; the offence remains non-bailable.
• BNS Alignment: Under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, the provision is renumbered as Section 85.

Applicability

• Exclusive to Married: It applies solely to married women facing cruelty from their husbands or relatives.
• Definition of Husband: It includes live-in partners or individuals in customary or claimed marriages.
• Definition of Relatives: It covers only those related by blood, marriage, or adoption.

Complaint Procedure

• Time Limit: The CrPC allows for filing of complaints within three years from the alleged act of cruelty.
• Eligible Complainants: The woman, her relatives, or a notified public servant may file the complaint.
• Bail Procedure: Bail is not automatic and can be granted only by a Magistrate after FIR registration.
• FWC Referral: FIRs for offences below 10 years go to Family Welfare Committees for scrutiny.

Key Challenges in Implementation

• Omnibus Allegations: Entire families, including minors and seniors, can be named without evidence.
• Procedural Gaps: Police often bypass Arnesh Kumar safeguards, leading to premature arrests.
• Digital Evidence Issues: Courts struggle to verify social media proof, creating confusion.
• Misuse as Pressure: The Section is sometimes used to coerce settlements or punish estranged spouses.
• Reputational Harm: False accusations inflict irreversible social, professional, and emotional damage.
• Judicial Backlog: Over 90% pendency in 498A cases results in denial of justice and delayed closure.

Way Forward: Reform Without Dilution

• Evidence Protocols: Enforce digital chain-of-custody and add psychological profiling in investigations.
• Graduated Remedies: Introduce civil compensation and mandatory mediation before FIR registration.
• Restorative Justice: Use counselling and reconciliation for non-grievous or first-time offences.
• Special Courts: Set up fast-track courts with judges trained in gender sensitivity.
• Community Networks: Strengthen district FWCs and conduct awareness drives for both sexes.
• Live Data Systems: Track FIRs, convictions, pendency, and misuse through real-time dashboards.
• Gender-Neutral Evolution: Build inclusive laws that balance protection with false-case prevention.

{GS2 – MoPNG – Initiative} Ethanol Blending in Petrol

• Context (LM): India met its 20% ethanol blending goal in 2025, ahead of the 2030 target, and now aims to scale blending to 27% by 2030 under the National Policy on Biofuels.

About Ethanol

• Fuel Type: Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) is a renewable, flammable, colourless bio-alcohol used as a transport fuel.
• Production modes: Produced through fermentation of sugars/starches or by ethylene hydration.
• Energy Characteristics: Ethanol has a high-octane rating but is 27% less energy-dense than petrol.
• Dual Role: It serves as a petrol additive and as a standalone fuel (E85, E100) in flex-fuel cars.
• Non-Fuel Use: Ethanol is also used in sanitisers, perfumes, beverages, and industrial solvents.
• By-Products: Distillers’ dried grains (DDGS) from grain ethanol are reused as animal feed.
• Generational Types: Ethanol is classified by feedstock origin into three generations:
  • 1G Ethanol: From food crops like sugarcane and maize.
  • 2G Ethanol: From crop residues, bagasse, and bamboo.
  • 3G Ethanol: From algae; still in R&D stage.
• Blend Compatibility: Ethanol is 99.9% pure alcohol and blends with petrol due to chemical miscibility.
  • Ethanol blending improves fuel combustion and reduces CO and hydrocarbon emissions.

Ethanol Blending Programme (EBP)

• Programme Evolution: EBP began in 2003 and achieved nationwide rollout by 2019.
• Blending Progress: Blending rose from 1.5% (2014) to 10% (2022) and 20% (2025).
• E27 Target: India aims to reach 27% ethanol blending by 2030 with phased rollout support.
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas oversees EBP with multi-ministry coordination.
• Labelling: Fuel pumps and vehicles must display ethanol blend level to ensure consumer awareness.

Other Government Initiatives

• Policy Backbone: National Biofuel Policy 2018 (amended in 2022) enables surplus foodgrain usage.
• Loan Support: Ethanol Interest Subvention Scheme (EISS) offers 6% interest subsidy to new distilleries.
• GST Reform: GST on blending ethanol reduced from 18% to 5% to lower production cost.
• E20 Compliance: All BS-VI petrol vehicles must meet E20 certification norms from April 2025.

Significance of Ethanol Blending

• Import Reduction: Ethanol blending reduces India’s dependency on crude oil imports.
  • Forex Saving: ₹1.36 lakh crore saved in foreign exchange through import substitution.
• Lifecycle Emissions: 2G ethanol cuts GHGs by over 50% compared to petrol.
• Farmer Income: Since 2014, farmers have received ~₹1 lakh crore through procurement transfers.
• Agro Waste Utilisation: Promotes a circular economy by using stubble, dung, and biomass.
• Crop Diversification: Incentivises maize cultivation and reduces cane dependency.
• Blending Buffer: Ethanol stockpiles offer blending flexibility to manage price shocks in crude oil.

Issues with Ethanol Blending

• Food–Fuel Conflict: Ethanol from foodgrains risks inflation and nutritional insecurity.
• Water Intensity: Producing 1 litre of ethanol consumes ~3000 litres of water, raising groundwater stress.
• Environmental Burden: Expansion risks deforestation, soil degradation, and monoculture.
• Pollution Concerns: Ethanol plants emit acetaldehyde, release vinasse, and fail to curb nitrous oxide.
• Mileage Reduction: E10-E20 blends lower fuel efficiency by up to 7%, while E100 cuts it by nearly 30%.
• Logistics Lag: Ethanol pipelines, storage, and rural blending depots remain inadequate.
• Price Uncertainty: Inconsistent feedstock pricing weakens investor confidence in ethanol distilleries.

Way Forward

• E27 Rollout: Prepare roadmap for scaling up blending to 27% by 2030.
• Maize Push: Increase MSP and acreage under maize to reduce foodgrain diversion.
• 2G Expansion: Fast-track bamboo, bagasse, and stubble-based ethanol plants.
• Water-Audit Mandate: Enforce water-use audits for all distilleries under CPCB norms.
• Balanced Allocation: Cap FCI foodgrain usage and incentivise non-edible feedstocks.
• Vehicle R&D: Develop E20-E100 compliant engines with corrosion & mileage safeguards.
• Global Partnerships: Collaborate with Brazil and Sweden for flex-fuel and lifecycle audit tech.

{GS3 – IE – Employment} India’s Employment Shift

• Context (LM): Recent government data shows a rise in formal jobs and self-employment in India, alongside a fall in youth unemployment, now below the global average.

India’s Employment Landscape

• Formal Employment: Over 13 million net Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO) subscribers added in FY25; 77.3 million total since September 2017.
• Self-Employment: Increased from 52.2% to 58.4%.
• Casual Labour: Declined from 24.9% to 19.8%.
• LFPR: Labour Force Participation Rate rose from 49.8% (2017–18) to 60.1% (2023–24).
• WPR: Worker-Population Ratio improved from 46.8% to 58.2%.
• Youth Unemployment Rate: Dropped from 17.8% (2017–18) to 10.2% (2023–24).

Reason for Rising Employment and Formalisation

• Policy Reforms: Implementation of labour codes, National Career Service, and initiatives like PMEGP, MUDRA Yojana, Startup India.
• Digital Integration: E-Shram & EPFO digitisation improved tracking & coverage of formal jobs.
• Emerging Sectors: Startups, global capability centres (GCCs), digital services and the gig economy, creating new and diverse employment opportunities for the youth.
• Agripreneurship: Schemes for Agro-MSMEs and agri-startups boosted self-employment.
• Structural Shifts: Rising educational enrolment and skilling programs such as PMKVY, Skill India enabling rising self-employment in India.

Challenges

• Gig Economy: Lack of income and social security for platform workers.
• Agricultural Dependence: Agriculture still employs a large portion of the workforce, accounting for approximately 46.6%.
• Skill Mismatch: Mismatches between qualifications and skills, especially at higher education levels.
• Informal Dominance: Most jobs are informal & not very productive (90% of employment is informal).
• Youth Exclusion: The proportion of youth who are not employed, educated, or trained (NEET) is approximately 28% (MoSPI).

Way Forward

• Labour Intensification: Encourage labour-intensive sectors such as textiles to absorb surplus labour.
• Job Formalisation: Enhance job quality via wage growth, social security, and formal employment.
• Regulatory Measures: Mandating basic labour protection like minimum wages, maximum working hours, paid leaves, etc.
• Skill Training: Invest in training programs that help workers transition into higher-skilled or permanent employment opportunities.

{GS3 – Envi – CC} Tracking India’s Climate Commitments

• Context (IE): India has crossed a major climate milestone by achieving key targets under the Paris Agreement (2015) well ahead of schedule.

Progress on Key Climate Targets

• Installed Capacity:
  • Target: 50% of electricity capacity from non-fossil fuels by 2030.
  • Achieved: As of June 2025, non-fossil sources contribute over 50% (242.78 GW) of the total installed capacity of 484.82 GW, target achieved 5 years ahead of schedule.
• Emissions Intensity:
  • Target: 45% reduction in emissions intensity (from 2005 levels) by 2030.
  • Achieved: By 2020, India had already achieved a 36% reduction. The current pace suggests the 2030 goal will be met comfortably.
• Carbon Sink:
  • Target: Additional 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO₂-equivalent sink by 2030.
  • Achieved: By 2021, India had already created a carbon sink of 2.29 billion tonnes CO₂-equivalent. Updated figures are expected in the next ISFR to assess progress after 2021.

Limitations and Challenges

• Capacity-Generation Mismatch: While 50% of installed capacity is non-fossil, only 28% of actual electricity generation comes from renewable sources.
• Share in Energy Mix: Electricity accounts for less than 22% of India’s total energy consumption. The remaining energy use is from the direct burning of fossil fuels, such as oil, coal, & gas.
• Nuclear Power: Nuclear energy contributes just ~7 GW and is expected to grow only slightly by 2030. Hence, the pressure remains on solar, wind, & hydro to drive clean energy growth.
• Capacity–Generation Gap: Although non-fossil sources account for over 50% of installed capacity, they generate only ~28% of actual electricity, due to intermittency and storage issues.
• Fossil Fuel Dominance: Electricity forms <22% of India’s total energy use; the rest still relies heavily on direct fossil fuel consumption.
• Limited Nuclear Role: Nuclear contributes only ~7 GW, with minimal expected growth, putting more pressure on solar, wind, and hydro.

Way Forward

• Broaden Decarbonization: Tackle emissions in transport, industry, and heating via EVs, green hydrogen, and biofuels.
• Enhance Storage: Invest in battery storage and smart grids to manage renewable intermittency.
• Improve Carbon Data: Ensure accurate carbon accounting to validate afforestation and enhance climate credibility.
• Accelerate Capacity Addition: Match global pace, especially China’s, to stay competitive in the clean energy transition.

{Prelims – In News} ICMR Developing Indigenous Malaria Vaccine ‘AdFalciVax’

• Context (AIR): India has developed a new multi-stage malaria vaccine candidate called AdFalciVax..

AdFalciVax Vaccine

• Developed By: ICMR’s Regional Medical Research Centre (RMRC), National Institute of Malaria Research (NIMR), and Department of Biotechnology’s National Institute of Immunology (DBT-NII).
• Type: A recombinant chimeric multi-stage malaria vaccine, genetically engineered using antigens from multiple life stages of the malaria parasite.
  • Uniquely developed using Lactococcus lactis, a food-grade bacterium used in dairy fermentation.
• Target Parasite: Plasmodium falciparum, the deadliest of the five human malaria parasites.
• Dual Objective:
  • Prevent human infection from P. falciparum.
  • Curb community-level transmission by targeting parasite stages within the mosquito vector.
• Current Status: Demonstrated high efficacy in preclinical trials. Not yet approved for clinical use.

Benefits Over Existing Malaria Vaccines

• Dual Protection: Targets two parasite stages for improved efficacy.
• Stronger Immune Response: Reduces the risk of immune evasion seen in single-antigen vaccines.
• Thermal Stability: Remains effective for over 9 months at room temperature, aiding remote deployment.

{Prelims – In News} Financial Inclusion Index

• Context (IE): The Reserve Bank of India has announced that the Financial Inclusion Index (FI-Index) for 2025 has improved, standing at 67% compared to 64.2% for FY 2024.

Recent Highlights

• Usage-led Growth: Increased use of digital payments, credit, and insurance was the key driver of improvement.
• Quality Gains: Improved service delivery and grievance redressal strengthened the quality dimension.

About Financial Inclusion Index

• Aim: To capture the extent of financial inclusion across the country.
• Parameter: Access (35%), Usage (45%), and Quality (20%).
• Nature of the FI-Index: The FI-Index has no designated base year and reflects the cumulative efforts of all stakeholders over time.