Current Affairs – July 26, 2024

{GS1 – A&C – Architecture} Significance of Temples for Indian Dynasties

• Context (TP): Temples and deities were central to the political and cultural strategies of various Indian dynasties.

Socio-Cultural Significance

• The Puri Jagannath temple conducts rituals, creating a vibrant atmosphere of devotion during Rath Yatra.
• Lingaraj temple in Bhubaneswar served as hubs for spiritual learning, where scriptures were studied.
• The Rajarajeshvaram temple in Thanjavur is rich in art and architecture, reflecting the cultural ethos of the Chola period.
• Temple built by the Ganga dynasty, ran educational institutions and hospitals, contributing to the welfare of society.
• Jagannath Temple played a role in defining and maintaining social hierarchy, providing a sense of order and structure.

Economic Significance

• The Jagannath temple in Puri attracts pilgrims and traders, leading to the growth of local markets. For example, Mughal officials encouraged pilgrimage to Jagannath, recognizing local rajas as “kings of Puri”.
• Temples acted as centers for redistributing wealth seized during wars. For example, The Rajarajeshvaram temple had a massive treasury filled with war loot.
• Chola temples owned vast lands and engaged in agriculture, supporting temple activities and regional economic well-being.
• The construction and maintenance of temples created employment opportunities.
• Spiritual tourism, in Jagannath Temple attracts visitors who spend on accommodation, food, and religious offerings, stimulating local economies.

Political Significance

• The construction of grand temples like the Rajarajeshvaram by the Chola emperor Rajaraja I showcased political authority.
• Patronage of local deities and claiming to be the representative of a deity to gain the loyalty of the local population. Ganga kings claimed to be the “son and the deputy of Purushottama (Jagannath)”.
• Temples in Odisha, had their legal systems, settling disputes and maintaining law and order within their jurisdiction.
• Political chess piece, that is, temples served as a focal point in the power dynamics between Brahmins, local rajas, and Muslim officials.
• Integration of conquered territories by acting as cultural and religious centers. For example, the Somavamsis built the Lingaraj temple to integrate their forest kingdom with the coastal plain.

{GS2 – Governance – Laws} Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act of 1957 **

• Context (TH): SC affirms States’ Unrestricted Right to Tax Mineral Lands. The court clarified that royalty paid by mining companies to the government is not a tax but a contractual payment.

• MMDRA,1957 governs the exploration, mining, and regulation of mineral resources and aims to ensure the orderly and efficient development of mineral resources while safeguarding the nation’s interests.

Key Provisions of the MMDRA

• Central Control: The Act regulates mines and mineral development under the control of the Union government for national interests.
• Prospecting and Mining Licenses: All prospecting and mining must be conducted under government-issued licenses or leases.
• Restrictions on Mining: Imposes limits on mining areas and quantities of mineral extraction.
• Environmental Protection: Mandates measures to prevent pollution and environmental damage.
• Safety Measures: Establishes stringent safety regulations for miners and mining operations.
• Mineral Conservation: Promotes efficient use and exploration of new mineral reserves.
• Role of State Governments: While the central government oversees overall control, state governments regulate minor minerals and administer the Act within their territories.

Significance of MMDRA

• Sustainable Mining: The MMDRA mandates reclamation plans to restore mined areas, promoting sustainable practices.
• Pollution Control: Provisions are in place to prevent air, water, and soil pollution from mining activities, with recent amendments enhancing these measures.
• Tax and Royalty Framework: Establishes a system for taxes and royalties on mineral extraction, contributing to government revenue.
• State Finances: Provides mechanisms like District Mineral Funds (DMFs) for sharing mineral wealth with states and addressing mining impacts.
• Miner Welfare: Includes provisions for miners’ safety, insurance, medical facilities, and housing.
• Corporate Social Responsibility: Mining companies undertake welfare activities for locals.
• Raw Material Supply: Ensures a steady supply of minerals essential for industrial growth.
• Employment Generation: Creates direct and indirect employment opportunities in the economy.

Challenges of MMDRA

• Environmental Degradation: Illegal mining in Goa has led to extensive deforestation and ecological damage affecting water sources and wildlife.
• Ineffective Implementation of Reclamation Plans: leading to environmental damage. For example, In Jharkhand, many mining sites remain unreclaimed, resulting in barren land and pollution.
• Corruption and Illegal Mining: Corruption and inadequate enforcement have undermined the Act’s goals. For example, The SC halted iron ore mining in Bellary, Karnataka, in 2011 due to illegal activities and corruption.
• Disputes Over Revenue Sharing: Mechanisms like DMF face equitable fund distribution and effective utilisation issues. For example, DMF fund mismanagement and inadequate local development in Odisha.
• Insufficient Social Welfare Measures: Miners in Chhattisgarh report poor access to health facilities and inadequate living conditions despite existing welfare measures.
• Slow Response to Technological Advancements: The Act does not fully incorporate recent environmental technologies or advanced mining techniques.
• Complex and Bureaucratic Licensing Process: Companies experience long delays in obtaining mining licenses, affecting project timelines and investments.
• Lack of Local Community Involvement: In Meghalaya, inadequate consultation and compensation have led to conflicts between mining companies and local communities.

Way Forward

• Ensure Comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): The Niyamgiri Hill case in Odisha stressed the need for rigorous EIA before starting mining operations.
• Mine Closure and Rehabilitation: The Jharia Coalfield fires in Jharkhand highlight the necessity for effective mine closure plans and regulations.
• Water Management: Water scarcity in the Cauvery basin due to excessive groundwater extraction for mining underscores the need for integrated water management.
• Circular Economy Principles: Finland’s closed-loop mining model offers a sustainable approach, using waste from one operation as input for another.
• Biodiversity Conservation: The Kudremukh National Park case highlights the need for biodiversity offsets and conservation plans.
• Technology Adoption: Satellite imagery in Goa effectively detects illegal mining.
• Community Involvement: Anti-mining committees in Madhya Pradesh empower locals to report illegal mining.
• Fair Revenue Sharing: Increased mineral royalty rates in Karnataka have boosted state revenues.
• Digitalization: Blockchain technology in Jharkhand improves transparency and prevents illegal mining.

Difference between Tax and Royalty
Feature	Tax	Royalty
Imposed by	Government	Resource Owner
Purpose	Generate Revenue	Compensation for Resource Use
Basis	Legal Framework	Contractual Agreement
Nature	Compulsory Payment	Payment for Privilege
Example	Income Tax, Sales Tax	Author Payment, Mineral Rights Payment
Constitutional Provisions Article 246: Governs the distribution of powers between the Centre and the States. Entry 49 of the State List: Pertains to taxes on lands & buildings, which includes mineral-bearing lands. Entry 50 of the State List: Pertains to the regulation of mineral development but does not restrict state taxation powers.

{GS2 – IR – Diplomacy} Foreign Aid Diplomacy **

• Content (IE): The Ministry of External Affairs has allocated Rs 4,883 crore of aid to countries in the union budget 2024. It is the strategic use of financial assistance to achieve foreign policy objectives.

Key Allocations in the Budget 2024

• Bhutan receives the highest aid allocation. Nepal and Sri Lanka have substantial increases in aid.
• Afghanistan and Maldives maintained the previous year’s allocation despite diplomatic tensions in the recent past. Myanmar receives aid as part of India’s regional assistance efforts.
• Countries in Africa, Central Asia, South Asia, and Latin America also receive allocations as part of India’s multilateral and bilateral aid programs.
• Chabahar Port Project in Iran has received Rs 100 crore annually, unchanged for the past three years.

Read more > Neighbourhood first policy  

Significance of Foreign Aid

• Market access: Increased regional trade and investment opportunities can boost economic growth. For example, India’s trade with Bangladesh and Nepal has steadily increased.
• Infrastructure development: Joint transportation, energy, & communication projects can improve connectivity to facilitate trade. For example, India’s investments in hydropower projects in Nepal and Bhutan.
• Counter-terrorism Cooperation: Collaborative efforts to combat terrorism and cross-border crime enhance regional security. India has been actively working with its neighbours to address these issues.
• Border management: Improved border management and cooperation can reduce tensions and conflicts. For example, India’s efforts to fence its border with Bangladesh and resolve border disputes with Nepal.
• Balancing act: A strong relationship with neighbours helps counterbalance the influence of other major regional powers. For example, India’s engagement with countries like Bhutan and Maldives is crucial.
• Regional leadership: India’s proactive role in regional forums and initiatives strengthens its leadership position. Initiatives like the BIMSTEC and BBIN have been instrumental in this regard.
• Hydropower and other resources: India can tap into region’s hydropower potential to meet its growing energy demands. Projects in Nepal, Bhutan & other countries are contributing to India’s energy security.
• Resource sharing: Cooperation in the energy sector can lead to shared benefits and reduce dependence on external sources.
• Soft power: Strong cultural and people-to-people connections enhance India’s regional image and influence. Educational and cultural exchanges are key components of this strategy.
• Diaspora engagement: Engaging with the Indian diaspora in neighbouring countries can foster economic and diplomatic ties.
• Enhanced image: A successful neighbourhood policy can elevate India’s global stature as a responsible and influential regional power.
• Multilateral diplomacy: Strong regional relationships can strengthen India’s position in multilateral forums like the UN and G20.

{GS2 – MOWCD – Schemes} Poshan Bhi Padhai Bhi Initiative

• Context (PIB): ‘Poshan Bhi Padhai Bhi’ initiative was launched in 2023 under Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0 scheme to bring focus of Anganwadi system to early childhood care and education.

• It aims to transform Anganwadi centres into a learning centre with high-quality infrastructure and well-trained Anganwadi workers.
• It focuses on Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) to stimulate the creative, social, emotional and cognitive development of children under six years of age including divyang children.
• The programme contains two curriculum frameworks:
  1. “Navchetana – For Early Childhood Stimulation for Children from Birth to Three Years, 2024” – For holistic early stimulation through responsive caregiving & opportunities for early learning.
  2. “Aadharshila– For Early Childhood Care and Education for Children from Three to Six Years 2024” – Covers all domains of development, including physical/motor, cognitive, language and literacy, socio-emotional, cultural/aesthetic, as well as positive habits.

Read More > Poshan Bhi Padhai Bhi Initiative

Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0 Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0 is an integrated nutrition support programme to combat malnutrition in children, adolescent girls, pregnant women, and lactating mothers. It is a centrally sponsored (60:40 funding) programme. Features Monitoring through Poshan Tracker App for evaluation and to support interventions. Community Mobilization and Behavior Change through different activities. Jan Andolan (People’s Movement) like Poshan Maah (September) and Poshan Pakhwada (March). Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE). Incentives and Awards for field functionaries and significant efforts. Read More > Mission Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0

{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Bioplastics *

• Context (PIB): ‘Cassava villages‘ in the Mokokchung district of Nagaland are replacing plastics with compostable bioplastic bags made from Cassava starch manufactured by Ecostarch (An MSME).

• Bioplastics are biodegradable and compostable plastic materials made from plants such as wheat, corn, sugarcane, vegetable oil or wood pulp.

Credits: compostnashville.org

Advantages

• Renewable Source: Made from plant-based materials.
• Biodegradability: Many bioplastics can be decomposed naturally.
• Reduced Carbon Footprint: Lower greenhouse gas emissions.
• Potential for Circular Economy: Reduce waste and resource consumption.

Challenges

• Energy Intensive Production: Requires almost 80% of the energy required to produce common plastic.
• Not all bioplastics are biodegradable in specific environments.
• Large-scale production could compete with food production.
• Lack of proper waste management systems for their effective disposal.

Cassava (Manihot esculenta) It is a tropical crop Native to South America and grows well in a warm and humid climate. High starch content is expoited for bioethanol and bioplastics production. It can thrive on any well-drained soil, with red lateritic loam being ideal and requiring a well-distributed rainfall of over 100 cm per annum. Its adaptability to various growing conditions makes it a reliable crop for achieving food security.

{GS3 – Envi – Degradation} India’s Rising Emissions and Responsibilities

• Context (TP): India must take responsibility for its growing emissions, regardless of lower per capita emissions compared to the West.

India’s Emission Statistics

• India is the third-largest emitter of greenhouse gases (GHGs) globally, contributing 7% of total GHG Emissions (Global Carbon Project).
• However, India’s per capita emissions are lower than those of many developed countries (GCP).
• 73% of India’s total GHG emissions are primarily from coal-based electricity generation (MoEFCC).

Need for India to Take up More Emissions Responsibility Among Developing Nations

• Economic Growth: Increased energy consumption & emissions necessiates sustainable practices.
• Global Leadership Aspiration: India is expected to play a significant role in international efforts, including climate action.
• Large Population: Contributes to its emissions footprint and presents challenges in energy access and consumption patterns.
• Air Pollution Crisis: This crisis is impacting millions with respiratory diseases and requiring emissions reductions from sectors like transportation and industry.
• Potential for Renewable Energy: Solar and wind power, particularly, offer emissions reduction and economic growth opportunities.

Complexity in Developing Countries

• Historical Emissions: India has low per capita emissions despite rapid industrialisation, while Brazil has higher cumulative emissions among developing nations due to its historical industrialisation path.
• Per Capita Emissions: China, the world’s largest emitter, has relatively low per capita emissions due to its large population and current industrial phase. South Africa has high per capita emissions among developing nations because of its small population and carbon-intensive economy.
• Economic Development Stage: Bangladesh prioritises poverty alleviation over emissions reduction, relying heavily on agriculture. With a larger economy and diverse industries, Brazil invests in clean energy and sustainable development.
• Vulnerability to Climate Change: Small Island Developing States (SIDS) face high vulnerability despite minimal emissions, while Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs) are vulnerable to climate-induced disasters affecting development.
• Access to Technology and Finance: India advances in renewable energy but struggles with affordable clean technology access and international finance. Costa Rica successfully transitions to a low-carbon economy with international support.
• Governance and Institutions: Corruption and weak governance hinder Indonesia‘s renewable resources, impacting climate policy effectiveness. Chile leads in renewable energy with strong environmental regulations and political stability.

International best practices

• Germany’s Energiewende: India can adopt Germany’s transition to renewable energy, though facing challenges, provides valuable lessons on policy design, grid integration, and public acceptance.
• Denmark’s Wind Energy: Denmark’s success in wind energy can be replicated in India’s coastal and windy regions.
• Norway’s EV Adoption: Norway’s policies to promote electric vehicles, including tax incentives and infrastructure development, can be adapted.
• London’s Congestion Charge: Implementing a congestion charge can reduce traffic & emissions.
• British Columbia’s Carbon Tax: This model can be adapted to incentivise emissions reduction.
• Japan’s Industrial Efficiency: Japan’s focus on energy efficiency in industries can be replicated in India’s manufacturing sector.

{GS3 – IE – Industry} Foreign Direct Investment from China

• Context (HT): Finance Minister has acknowledged the suggestion by the Chief Economic Adviser (CEA) regarding increasing Chinese foreign direct investment (FDI) during a post-budget press conference.

• The CEA has suggested that India should seek increased FDI to boost exports to the US and Western countries, aiming to manage India’s growing trade deficit with China.
• India had tightened scrutiny on Chinese investments and halted major projects (including blocking visas for Chinese nationals) in the aftermath of the Ladakh standoff.
• The FDI inflow dropped to a 17-year-low by 62.17% to $10.58bn in 2023-24 (RBI)
• China has called for delinking the border dispute from other bilateral relations. However, India has emphasised that ties cannot be normal without stability across the border areas.
• Western companies seek alternative import avenues to reduce dependence on Chinese manufacturing. India should capitalise on this opportunity.

In 2024, China emerged as India’s top trading partner, and trade reached $118bn, with India’s exports at only $16.67bn, leaving a huge trade deficit of over $100 bn (Global Trade Research Initiative).

To know more > Growing trade deficit with China.

{GS3 – IE – Industry} Inverted duty structure

• Context (PIB): The Budget proposes comprehensive rationalization of GST tax structure along with review of the Custom Duty rate structure to support domestic manufacturing.

• An inverted duty structure refers to a situation where taxes on input items are higher compared to the final product.
• An inverted tax is also observed in cases where the inputs are taxed but the final output good is tax-exempt (also known as zero/nil rated).
• Expensive inputs make products costly and cannot compete in the export market. In the domestic market, such products are prone to cheaper imports.
• Implications: It discourages domestic production, as importing finished products is cheaper than producing them locally.

{GS3 – IE – Taxes} Angel Tax

• Context (PIB): The Angel Tax was abolished for all class of investors to boost startups.

• It was introduced in 2012 under Section 56(2) (viib) of the Income Tax Act (ITA),
• Its objective was to address concerns related to money laundering and the flow of unaccounted funds.
• It was imposed on any premium paid by investors above the fair market value of the shares, classifying it as “income from other sources” and subjecting it to taxation. The excess amount was taxed at 30.9%.
• While previously the angel tax applied only to local investors, the Budget for the 2023-24 fiscal year widened its ambit to include foreign investments.
• Issues with the tax:
  • Impact on the valuation of shares.
  • Treatment of estimated figures in the discounted cash flow (DCF) method (it evaluates investment by discounting the estimated future cash flows).
  • Retrospective application of the tax and its effect on the conversion of convertible instruments into equity.

Fair market value (FMV) is the price of an asset when buyer and seller have reasonable knowledge of it and are willing to trade without pressure.

{GS3 – IE – Taxes} Capital Gains

• Context (PIB): Long-term gains on all financial and non-financial assets to attract a 12.5 per cent rate, while short-term gains shall attract a rate of 20 per cent on certain financial assets.

Amendments proposed in Budget

• To classify assets into long-term and short-term, there will only be two holding periods – for listed securities, it is one year, for all other assets, it is two years. The 36-month holding period has been removed.
• The holding period of all listed assets will be one year. Therefore, for listed units of business trusts (REITs, InVITs), the holding period is reduced from 36 months to 12 months.
• The holding period of gold and unlisted securities (other than unlisted shares) is also reduced from 36 months to 24 months.
• The holding period of immovable property remains the same as earlier i.e. 24 months.
• The taxation of short-term capital gain for listed equity shares, a unit of an equity-oriented fund, and a unit of a business trust has increased to 20% from 15%.
• The indexation benefit previously available on sale of long-term assets, has now been done away with.

Indexation is a method used to adjust the purchase price of an asset for inflation over the years. The adjusted price is then used to calculate the capital gains.

Short-Term Capital Gains

• Capital gains arising from the transfer of short-term capital assets are referred to as short-term capital gains (STCG).
• An asset held for a period of 12 months or less is a short-term capital asset.

Long-Term Capital Gains

• Capital gains arising from the transfer of long-term capital assets are referred to as long-term capital gains.
• An asset held for more than 24 months is a long-term capital asset. This includes all unlisted shares, immovable property, bonds, debentures and gold. For listed securities, the tenure is 12 months.

{GS3 – IE – Taxes} Safe Harbour Rates

• Context (PIB): To reduce litigation and provide certainty in international taxation, scope of safe harbour rules to be expanded.

• Safe Harbour refers to a legal provision to reduce or eliminate liability in certain situations as long as certain conditions are met.
• Safe harbour rates refer to predetermined and fixed tax rates that provide a level of certainty and stability for businesses.
• By implementing these rates, the government aims to simplify tax compliance for foreign mining companies, reducing the risk of tax disputes and creating a more attractive investment environment.
• Significance: This approach helps to streamline the taxation process, making it easier for foreign suppliers to operate in India without facing unexpected tax liabilities.

{GS3 – Infra – Initiatives} Kosi-Mechi Interlink Project

• Context (PIB): The government will provide financial support for Kosi-Mechi intra-state link.

Credits: NWDA

• It aims to connect the Kosi River, known as ‘the sorrow of Bihar’, and divert its surplus water to the Mechi, a tributary of the Mahananda River. For this, a new 76.2 km long canal will be constructed to link the Kosi to the Mechi.
• It is the second river linking project in the country after the Ken-Betwa scheme in Madhya Pradesh.
• Significance:
  • Help irrigate 214,000 hectares (ha) of land.
  • Tackle annual floods, often caused by excess water discharged from Nepal.

Bihar is the most flood-prone state in the country. Of the total 9.41 million ha, 6.88 million ha — 76% of north Bihar and 73% of south Bihar — is flood-prone.

{GS3 – Infra – Initiatives} Temple corridors in Bihar

• Context (IE): The government announces financial support for developing temple corridors at Vishnupad, Mahabodhi in Bihar.

• Vishnupad Temple corridor at Gaya and Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar will be developed to transform them into world-class pilgrim and tourist destinations.
• These corridors will be modelled on the successful Kashi Vishwanath Temple Corridor.

Vishnupad Temple at Gaya

• Vishnupad temple is dedicated to Lord Vishu. The temple marks the spot where Lord Vishnu is believed to have defeated Gayasur, the demon.
• It is located on the banks of the Falgu river and was built in 1787 on the orders of Queen Ahilyabai Holkar of Ahmadnagar.
• The temple is around 100 feet tall and has 44 pillars.
• The core part of the temple consists of the main shrine with a tall Vimana, 100 feet high, and a pillared Mandapa. It follows the Nagara style of temple architecture and is made of granite.

Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya

• The Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• It is located on the banks of the Niranjana River.
• The temple stands to the east of the Mahabodhi Tree, where Gautam Buddha is believed to have attained nirvana. The temple has a unique shape and a height of 170 feet.
• The Mahabodhi Temple Complex is the first temple built by Emperor Asoka in the 3rd century B.C., and the present temple dates from the 5th–6th centuries.
• It is one of the earliest Buddhist temples built entirely in brick.

Kashi Vishwanath Temple Corridor project in Varanasi

• The foundation was laid in 2019. It connects the iconic Kashi Vishwanath temple and the ghats along the river Ganga.

Kashi Vishwanath Temple

• Also known as the Golden Temple, it is dedicated to Lord Shiva.
• It is situated on the West bank of the river Ganga.
• It was constructed in 1780 by Maharani Ahilyabai Holkar of the Indore.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh donated gold for the temple shikhara.
• It is one of the twelve Jyotirlingas, the holiest of Shiva temples.
• The temple is an integral part of the Char Dham Yatra (other three being Badrinath, Dwarka, and Puri).

{Prelims – Envi – Species} Listeria Monocytogenes *

• Context (IE): Cases of listeriosis, spread by the bacteria known as listeria monocytogenes, have been reported in the US (from meat) and Canada (from plant-based beverages).

• Bacteria Habitat: Soil, vegetation, water, sewage, and animal/human faeces.
• Incubation Period: Up to two months before symptoms appear.
• Symptoms: Vomiting, nausea, cramps, headache, constipation, and fever.
• High-Risk Groups: Immunocompromised individuals, pregnant persons, and elderly (65+).
• Commonly Contaminated Foods: Milk, raw sprouts, deli meats, hot dogs, soft cheeses, smoked seafood.
• Treatment: Depends on the extent of infection.
  • Intestinal Listeriosis: Symptoms within a day or two may include diarrhoea and vomiting, treated like a routine stomach infection with possible antibiotics.
  • Invasive Listeriosis: Severe symptoms two weeks after consumption, requires intensive treatment.

Source: FDA

{Prelims – In News} SAMADHAN Portal

• Context (PIB): Ministry of Labour & Employment launched SAMADHAN Portal as a grievance redressal mechanism for industrial disputes by the workmen, employers and trade unions under the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947.

• It ensures efficiency and transparency through online filing, faster disposal, and internal monitoring.
• It also covers cases under the Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972, Minimum Wages Act, 1948, Payment of Wages Act, 1936, Equal Remuneration Act, 1976, and Maternity Benefit Act, 1961.

{Prelims – PIN India} Rajgir

• Context (LM): The central government will be promoting Nalanda, including the Nalanda-Rajgir corridor in Bihar, as a tourist destination.

• Rajgir, also known as ‘Grivraja’, is revered in Buddhist and Jain scriptures and finds notable mention in the Mahabharata. It is located 60 miles southeast of Patna, the present capital of Bihar.
• The city is fortified by the hills of the Barabar range. The Barabar range is home to India’s four oldest rock-cut caves, believed to have been built during the Mauryan empire.
• Gautam Buddha is believed to have given many sermons and Lord Mahavira had lived here for some time.
• The first Buddhist Council took place in Rajgir within the Saptaparni Cave.
• It served as the capital of the Magadh empire from the time of Mahabharata to 5^th century BC.

Places of significance in Rajgir

• Vishwa Shanti Stupa: Constructed by the Japanese atop the Ratnagiri hill at an elevation of 400 m above sea level.
• Saptparni Cave: It is the source of Rajgir Hot water springs which have curative properties and are considered sacred by Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains.
• Maniyar Math: Built in the Gupta Period, it is a mysterious place of worship believed to be dedicated to Naga Shilbhadra and has also been a Buddhist stupa sometime in the past.
• Gridhra-Kuta (vulture’s peak): It was a cherished spot for meditation and delivering sermons by Buddha.